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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 



HOW TO 

STUDY PLANTS 

AN ILLUSTRATED FLORA FOR 
TEACHERS' READING CIRCLES 




ALPHONSO WOOD, A. M., Ph. D. 



AUTHOR OF "the CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, "OBJECT 
LESSONS IN BOTANY," "PLANT RECORD," ETC. 



' There breathes for those who understand, 
A voice from every flower and tree ; 
And in the worl< of Nature's hand 
Lies Nature's best Philosophy," 




NEW YORK •:• CINCINNA^'.->-:,vveHICA<50 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



\ 



Copyright, 1895, by 
American Book Company. 

HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 



PREFACE. 




4 IE plan of this work differs from that of 
the ordinary Botany. The method pur- 
sued is to introduce the reader at once to 
^^%-^^^^P the study of the plant itself, by means of 
y^ /1f^ , elaborate illustrations, and living specie 
mens. 

The parts and functions, together with 
the generic and specific characters of each plant, are 
pointed out and described. The thing being seen, is 
then named. No new term is introduced until a 
necessity arises for its use. About one hundred rep- 
resentative plants are thus explained. The work may 
therefore be considered as a limited Flora. But it is 
much more. Through an acquaintance with these 
representative plants, the reader is gradually led to a 
knowledge of the principles of Botany. In the com- 
mon treatise he is told the general law and then givers 
illustrations ; in this, he is shown the instances, and 
thence conducted to the broad truth of Nature. 

The selection of plants for analysis has been deter^ 
mined by the following considerations : ( i .) The plant 
should be common throughout the country and hence 
accessible to every learner; (2.) It should flower 



Vl PREFACE. 

in the spring or early summer, that being the season 
when the study is generally pursued in our schools ; 
(3.) It should have conspicuous parts, at least the 
earlier ones, adapted to the comprehension of a begin- 
ner ; (4.) It should belong to one of the more impor 
tant Orders, as neither the limits of the book nor the 
requirements of the plan adopted would admit the 
study of them all ; finally, the selection was often influ- 
enced by some intrinsic feature which fitted the plant 
to illustrate a special principle in vegetable life, as 
sleep, irritability, cross-fertilization. 

This work is merely an introduction, conducting 
tlic student across the gateway only. Yet it is not de- 
signed for infants ; the rather for learners capable of 
thought and reason. To all such it offers a helping 
hand, seeking to smooth their path and to awaken 
such an interest in the subject as will induce them to 
pursue their investigations in more advanced books 
and in the broader field of Nature itself. 

The illustrations in this work are nearly all from 
original designs prepared by Mr. Sprague, '' the most 
accurate of living botanical artists," and Mr. Emerton, 
designer of the illustrations in Prof. Eaton's North 
\merican Ferns. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAP. PAGE 

I. Pigeon-wheat Moss— Polytri chum. The Analysis. Cap 
sule. Operculum. Calyptra. Peristome. Spores. 
Flowers. The Flowerless Plants. How the Moss grows. 13 
II. The Apple Moss— Bartramia. The doable peristome. 

Fugacious calyptra. Cellular structure. The Musci. 17 

III. The Polypod Fern — Polypodium. The rhizome. Frond. 

Sporangia. Spores. Forked venation. How the Fern grows. 2 J 

lY. The Osmund Ferns — Osmunda. The vernation. The 
species. The Order Felices. Tree Ferns. THE 
CRYPTOOAMIA. The uses of Ferns. The Climbing 
Fern. The Brake. The pioneer vegetation 24 

y. The Dogtooth Violet — Erythronium. The two Regions. 
The bulb. Leaf. Venation. The Calyx. Corolla. Sta- 
mens. Pistils. The fruit. Seeds. Pollen. The province 
Endogens. the PHENOGAMIA 29 

VI. The Tulip — Tulipa. The tunicated bulb ; its contents. 

The flower. Varieties. The Tulip mania in Holland. ... 35 
VII. The Spring Beauty— Claytonia. Tubers. A raceme. The 
petals and their colored lines. Opposing stamens. The 
seed and its albumen. Estivation. Our two species. The 
PORTULACACE^. The Portulacas. The province Exogens. 39 
VIII. The Early Crowfoot — Ranunculus. Fasciculate roots. 
Perennial herbs The nectary. Polyandrous and hy- 
pogynous stamens. The simple fruit — distinct carpels. 46 

IX. Bulbous Crowfoot — Ranunculus. An inaxial root. The 

corm. Reflexed sepals ; economy. Plan of the flower. . 50 
X. The Liverleaf — Hepatica. Crown-stem. Palmate vena- 
tion. Involucre. Apetalous flowers. Anatropous seeds. 54 

XL Rue Anemone — Anemone. Tuberous root. Umbel. Com- 
pound leaves. Distinctness of organs. Absence of honey. 58 
XII. Wood Anemone — Anemone. Creeping root; rhizome. 

Solitary inflorescence. Species. Order Ranunculace^. 60 

XIII. Bloodroot — Sanguinaria. Rhizome. Juice. Caducous 

sepals. Parietal placentae. Dicotyledonous embryo 64 

XIV. The Poppy — Papaver. An annual herb. The species. 

Order Papa yer ace .« The California Poppy. Celan 

dine. Use and culture of Opium 68 

XV. The Violets — Viola. A cucuUate leaf. Resupinate, ir- 
regular flowers. Adnate anthers. Cleistogene flowers. 
Economy in pollen 71 

vii 



viii CONTEXTS. 

CHAP. PAGE 

XVI. The Garden Violet — Viola tricolor. Lyrate-pinnatifid 

stipules. Auriculate sepals. Order Violace^. Species. 75 

XVII. CniCKWEED — Stellaria. Nodes. Internodes, Centrifu- 
gal inflorescence. Bifid petals. Free central placenta. 78 

XVIII. The Pink — Dianthus. Caudex. Caulis. Tlie Calyx as 
a flower-cup. Proterandrous flowers. Teratology. 
Order Caryophyllace^ 80 

XIX. The Wild Geranium. Nodes. Internodes. Stipules. Reg- 
ma. Carpophore. Folded cotyledons. Herb Robert. 83 

XX. The Horse-shoe Geranium — Pelargonium. The Spur. 86 

XXI. Yellow Wood Sorrel— Oxalis. Leaf trifoliate. Leaf- 
let obcordate. The leaf-axils Monadelphous stamens. 
Contorted aestivation. Sleep of plants. The Order 89 

XXII. Jewel Weed — Impatiens. Corolla irregular and spurred. 

Irritable fruit. Contrivances for scattering seeds.. . . 93 

XXIII. Nasturtian — Tropaeolum. Peltate leaves Spurred 

sepal. Unguiculate petals. The order Geraniace^. 95 

XXIV. Shepherd's Purse — Capsella. Leaves amplexicaul. 

Flowers cruciform, tetradynamous. A silicle 89 

XXV. The ToOTHROOT Cress — Cardamine. Asilique. Cotyle- 
dons accumbent — incumbent. Order Cructfer^. . . 101 
XXVI. Strawberry — Fragaria. Scape. Cyme. Perigynous sta- 
mens. Strawberry fruit. Quincuncial aestivation. Hairs. 104 

XXVII. The Apple Tree — Pyrus. Trunk. Wood. Medullary 
rays. Annual layers. Food of plants. Circulation of the 
sap. Ovary adherent. Fruit a pome. Seed. Germination. 107 

XXVIII. The Rose— Rosa. History. The Prickles. Odd-pin- 
nate leaves. Ovary inferior. Seed suspended. The 
Hip. The Double Rose. The order Rosacea. Peach, 
Quince, Blackberry, Spirea, etc 112 

XXIX. The Pea — Pisum. Tendrils their action. Papiliona 

ceous flower. Diadelphous stamens. Legume 117 

XXX. The Locx^st Tree — Robinia. Stipular spines. Sensi- 
tiveness. The Sensitive Plant. The Moving Plant. 
The order Leguminos^e 121 

XXXI. The Evening Primrose — CEnothera. Leaves spirally 
arranged. Root biennial. Calyx adherent, tubular. 
Flowers nocturnal 125 

XXXII. Lady's Eardrops — Fuchsia. Angular pollen grains. 

Hybridization. Order Onagrace^. Zauschneria. . . 128 

XXXIII. Sweet Cicely— Osmorhiza. The axial root. Decom- 

pound leaves. Sheathing petioles. Compound um- 
bel. Involucels. The cremocarp. Carpophore 131 

XXXIV. Golden Alexanders — Carnm Ovary inferior. Ribs 

and vitae of the fruit. Oil tubes. Action of light. 
The order Umbellifer^ . :. 184 



CONTENTS. ix 

CHAP. PAGE 

XXXV. The Mouse-ear Eyerlastixg— Antennaria. Stolons. 
Dioecious plants. Heads of florets. Receptacle. In- 
volucre. Pappus clubby. Cypsela 137 

XXXVI. Robin's Plantain — Erigeron. Heads radiate. Florets 

of the ray. Florets of the disk. Li^'ulaie corolla. . 140 
XXXVII. The Dandelion— Taraxacum. Runcinate leaves Ra- 
diant, homogamous heads. Chaff. Syngenecious 
anthers. The order Composite. Chickory, Camo- 
mile, Aster. Chrysanthemum. Soli dago 143 

XXXVIII. The Check rberry— Gaultheria. Urceolate corolla. 

Curious fruit. The B'ack Checkerberry 147 

XXXIX. The Pyrolas. Anthers inverted in bud , opening by 

pores. The six species 150 

XL. Prince's Pine— Chimaphila. Horned anthers 152 

XLI. The Kalmias. Elastic stamens Pollenization. The 
order Ericace^. The Heaths. Blueberries. Cranber- 
ries. Azalias May-flower 155 

XLII. The Pitcher Plant— Sarracenia. As:idia. Order Sar- 

RACENIACE.E. Carnivorous Planto Venus' Flytrap . . 158 
XLIII. The Am:^rican Cowslip— Dodecatheon. Opposing 

stamens. Dimorphism. Free central placenta 161 

XLIV. Chick WiNTERGREEN — Trientalis. 7-parted flowers .. . 164 
XLV. The Loosestrifes— Lysimachia. Verticillate leaves. 
Monadelphous stamens. Opposing stamens explained. 
Order PRIMULACE.E. Cyclamen. Anagallis. Primrose. 165 
XL VI. The Speedwells -Veronica. Why so called. A two- 
celled capsule. Exserled stamens. The species .... 170 
XLVII. Toad Flax — Linaria Pentamerous flowers. Personate 
corolla. The spur, — what can reach its honey. Order 

SCROPHLT./ CE-E. Digitalis. Pentstemon VtS 

XLVIII. The GtROUND Ivy — Xepeta. jSTaturalized plants. Bi- 
labiate corolla. Halved anthers. Seeds apparently 

naked. The Catmint 176 

XLIX. Blue Curls — Brunella. Cuspidate bracts. Hairs jointed. 
The lip a doorstep for bees. Order Labiate. Pep- 
permint. Oil of Spike. Lavender 179 

L. The Morning Glory — Ipomoea. Ephemeral flowers. 
Supervolute aestivation. The disk. Use of pollen ; 
— nectar. Septifragal dehiscence. Albumen. Vital- 
ity of seed. The bud. Conyotatji ace^ 1 82 

LI. Rock Maple — Acer. Tree picturesque. Theory of leaf- 

forms. Autumnal colors. Maple sugar. Other Maples. 188 

LIL The Horse Chestnut — ^sculus. History. Phyllo- 
taxy. Digitate leaves. Suppression of ovules. The 

Sapindace^. The Sonpberry tree 192 

LIII. The Silk Grass — AscL--^ ias. Pollinia. Corona, hoods 
and horns. Cross fertilization. The Asclepiadace^. 
The Cow tree. Carrion flow^er 195 



X CONTEXTS. 

CHAP. PAGE 

LIV. Spotted Knotwood — Polygonumc Oclireae. Apeta- 
lous flowers. An aclienium. Other species. The 

nectar defended from ants The Polygonace^ 199 

LV. Tn;-: Spuhges — Euphorbia. A monandrous flower. A 
ghmdular involucre. Poisonous juice. The Euphor- 

BiACE^. Tapioca. Caoutchouc ... 204 

LVI. The White Oak — Quercus. Aments. Wind-feitiliza- 
tion. Acorns. Germination. History. Straight- 
veined leaves. The Cupulifer^. The value of 

Mast. Oak timber. Nut-galls 207 

LVII. Th : White Pixe — Pinus. Acerous leaves. Triple 
pollen grains. Biennial fruit. The cone. Naked 

s^eds. Root fences. Other species 214 

LVI II. The Hemlock — Abies= Excurrcnt trunk. The Conif- 
er^e. Pitted cells. The Douglass Fir. The Giant 

Cedars. Turpentine 218 

LIX. Thk Palmetto — Sabal. Tree with one bud. Caudex. 
The endogenous structure. Other Palms. Germi- 
nation of the Cocomut. The Palmace^. Date Palm. 

Sago. Vegetal^le Ivory. Palm oil 223 

LX. Jack ix-the-Pulpit — Arisaema. The spadix and spathe. 

Golden Club. Calla. The Arace^. Sweet Flag. ... 229 
LXI. The Showy Orchis — An orchidaceous periantho Gy- 

nandrous stamens. Pollinia How fertilized. 233 

LXII. Orchis Psychodes. O. orbiculata. Lady's Slipper. The 

Orchidace^. Mimicry of insects, birds, etc 237 

LXIII. Iris, or Blue Flag. Ensiform leave s PoUenization. 

The Fleur de lis in liistory 241 

LXIV. Blue-eyed Grass— Sisyrinchium The Iridace^ 244 

LXV. The Trilliums. Net veined endogens. Wake-robin. 

The Bath-flower. Indian Cucumber. The Trilliace^. 246 
LXVI. Bellavort, or Wild Oats — Uvularia. Perfoliate leaves. 

Loculicidal pods. U. sessili folia, and other species . . 254 
LXVIL Lily-of-the-Yalley— Convallaria. Gamopetalous. Ori- 
gin of ths stem. History. Clintonia. The Liltace^. 254 
LXVIII. The Star grass— Hypoxis. Sagittate anthers. Species. 258 

LXIX. Narcissus \ 261 

LXX. The Sedges. Galingale — Cyperus. The umbels. The 

naked flowers. The spikes. The Rushes. Achenium . 263 
LXX I. The Sedges. Garex. Triangular culm. Monoecious spikes. 

Perigynium. Glume. The Cyperace^. Papyrus 265 

LXXII. The Grasses. The turf. Culm. Sheath. *Ligule. 

Poa pratensis. Wind-fertilization. Blue Grass 271 

LXXIII. Orchard Grass — Daetylis. Secund panicles. Keeled 

glumes 274 

LXXIV. Sweet Vernal Grass — Anthoxanthum. Germination 
of the Grasses. The order Gramine.^. The cereals. 
Bamboo. Hay — of what grasses made 276 



" Happy y in my judgment^ 
The waiideri7ig herbalist, who clear alike 
From vaiuy and that worse evil, vexing thoughts. 

^ ^ ^ ^ peeps 7vund 

For some rare JlowWet of the hills, or plant of craggy 
fountains y 

WORDSWORTf; 



" Flower in the crannied wall, 
I pluck you out of the crannies ; 
Hold you here, root and ally in my hand. 
Little flower, but if I could understand 
What you are, root and all, and all in all, 
I should know what God and man is."* 
— Tennysof 



BOTANY 



I. PIGEON-WHEAT MOSS. 

Description. — The portrait is before us (p. 15). We 
cannot fail to recognize a little rustic friend we have often 
met in our country rambles^ coyering the dry knolls in 
pastures among rocks and stumps.* Examining this plant 
as a whole, we see that it is a mossy herb, erect, 3 to 8 
inches high, branched at the base, aboye which it is not 
branched, but simple, as the botanists say. Coming next to 
study the plant in detail, we find that it is organized, i. e.. 
made of cooperating parts. Fiye of these — ^the root, stem 
leaf, stalk, and fruit — are readily distingaiished. 

Analysis, t — The ^oot is the base of the plant. It 
grows in the ground, and is the part first formed. Its use 
is to hold the plant in its place and to take up nourish- 
ment from the soil. There are numerous small fibers or 
rootlets branching from the main root or axis, to giye a 
broader foothold and aid in absorbing food. J 

The Stem {a V) springs from the root. It is upright^ 
simple, 1 to 3 inches high, round and tapering, or, as we 
may hereafter say, terete, 

* Specimens of this plant may be collected at all seasons of the year, and in drying 
they will lose none of their comeliness. 

t Analysis.— GiQok ana, each, or severally, and luein, to loosen or dissolve-, 
means to consider anything in its different parts separately, one by one. 

% The life-history of the Moss begins in a mesh of green, gossamer-like threads that 
spring from the spore which serves for its seed. For a time, 5 to 20 days, this mat slowly 
gathers strength, when suddenly on one of the crossings a tiny bud appears— a whorl 
of scaly leaves. Now true roots creep do'.vn into the soil, the threads drop away, the 
stem ascends. No one plants the Moss ; it does not follow the track of man in his " 
migrations ; yet it is everywhere present to greet his coming. In the barren sands, 
in the chinks of the naKed rock, wall, or pavement, wherever a spore may find a lodg- 
ment, there the Moss weaves its tiny mesh, and grows its diminutive forest. 



14 PIGEON-WHEAT MOSS. 

The Jjeaves are green or brownish^ and grow mostly 
from the upper part of the stem. They are (1) long- 
pointed, and shaped somewhat like a spear or lance, only 
narrower, approaching the form of a line ^— — ; hence 
they are said to be linear'-lanceolate. The edges are serru- 
late (Lat. serrula, a little saw). 

The Stalk (l c) rises from the top of the stem among 
the leaves, and is therefore said to be terminal ; and as it 
supports the fruit, it is called the pedicel {pedicidus, a little 
foot). It is erect, usually longer than the stem, smooth, 
brown, thread-shaped {filiform). 

The ^7'tiii [c) is borne aloft on the pedicel. It is the 
last part produced by the plant, the chief end and aim of 
its whole life. It is a small square box or ca2)sule (7), 
covered while growing by a hairy cap or calyptra (6). 
AVhen ripe, the calyptra yanishes, the capsule nods (8), and 
the lid — operculura (9) at the top opens, revealing within 
a greenish dust. This consists of a multitude of tiny gTains 
or spores^ soon to be scattered on the ground, and to serve 
as seeds. After the operculum has fallen off, the mouth 
{stoma) remains open, and is seen beautifully bordered by 
a circlet of teeth. This is called the peristome (Gr. peri^ 
around, stoma, mouth). With a microscope we can see 
that the teeth are blunt (10), and 64 in number.* 

Classification. — At the top of the stem, before the fruit 
arises, we may often find a group of organs resembling and 
indeed serving as a flower (3).f But being colorless and 

* In other kinds of Moss the number of the teeth is 4, 8, 16, 32— always some 
power of 2. Sometimes the peristome is double, the inner one consisting of as many- 
little hairs {cUioe.) 

t In Fig. 1 (2) the artist has delineated a male, or sterile flower of Polytrichmn 
(for two kinds of flowers are developed by this Moss). In 4 is seen, greatly mag- 
nified, the special organs (two antheridia^ and o, o, two paraphyses) of the sterile 
flower. In 5, also greatly magnified, aie seen the two archegania of a fertile flower, 
from one of which the capsule arises, the other proving abortive ; 3 is one of the 
leaves (sepals). 




Pig. I — Pio^eon-Wheat Moss, Polytrichum commune. The portrait represents 
the plant in nearly full size. The other figures are dissections^ showing the various 
organs magnified, as nnder a microscope ; 2, a sterile flower, magnified. 



16 



PIGEON- WHEAT MOSS. 



insignificant in appearance, it is easily overlooked. Hence 
the early botanists called this and all the Mosses, Lichens. 
&c., Cryptogams (= Cryptogamia), that is, plants with hid- 
den flowers, or more familiarly, the Flowerless Plakts. 

The Name given to this plant by Linnaeus,* the founder 
of the science of Botany, is Polytrichum, a name derived 
from the Greek polys, much, tlirix, hair ; on account of its 
hairy calyptra. 

AIS'ALYSIS OP the PIGE0:N"- WHEAT MOSS. 



Parts, 

Members, 
Organs. 


DESCRIPTION. 


THE PLANT. 


An herb 5 to 8 inches high, with leafy verdure, branched at base. 


ROOT. 


The basis of the plant, growing downward in the soil. 


Axis. 


Crooked, diminishing downward. 


Fibers. 


Many, short, branching from the axis. 


STEM. 


One or more from the root, erect, terete, 1' to S', leafy. 


Pedicel. 


Terminal, smooth, brown, thread-shaped, long, naked. 


LEAVES. 


Greenish, linear lanceolate, pointed, crowded above. 


FRUIT. 


Terminal, erect at first, finally nodding. 


Calyptra. 


A cap of matted hairs, pointed at t(yp. 


Capsule. 


A smaU box, generally four-sided, opening at top. 


Operculum. 


The lid of the capsule, round, pointed in centre. 


Peristome. The fringe of the mouth, consisting of 6U teeth. 


Spores. Greenish, dust-like, contained in the capsule, for seeds. 


CLASSIFICATION. The Grand Division, CRYPTOGAMIA. 

The Tribe, MOSSES or MUSCI. 

Family or Genus, Polytriclium. 



* In his botanical tours in Lapland, Linnaeus found this Moss very abundant, and 
tells us that in his hours of rest he often made it his couch and pillow. 



BARTEAMIA POMIFORMIS. 



17 



The Recordi — In the preceding tablet are recorded the 
principal facts we have now learned concerning the Pigeon- 
wheat Moss. 

Review of the Scientific Terms which have been employed 
and defined in this lesson. If the student will master them here, they 
need not be explained hereafter. Analysis. Axis. Calyptra. Capsule. 
Cryptogamia. Lanceolate. Linear. Operculum. Organized. Pedicel. 
Peristome. Rootlet. Simple. Spores. Stoma. Terminal. Terete. 



II. THE APPLE MOSS. 

Description. — This pretty Moss is knowTi by its round, 
apple-shaped capsnles. It grows in large^ dense tnfts^ 2' or 
3' (inches) high, of a light or yellowish-green color, often cov- 
ering the ground on shady 
banks or in open woodlands. 

Analysis. — The Soot is a 
simple axis, clothed with mi- 
nute rootlets, which appear like 
a soft broAvnish down. 

The Stems are densely 
crowded, repeatedly forking, 
or dichotomoiis (dividing by 
pairs), covered and concealed 
by their leaves. 

The Z/eaves are numerous 
and crowded on the stem and 
branches. They are narrower fig. ii — Bartramia poinif6rmi8» 
than those of the Polytrichum, narrower even (proportion- 
ately) than a cobbler's awl ; hence we define them as linear- 
suhdate [sithitla, an awl).* 

* Viewed nnder a strong microscope, the leaf of this Moss, and indeed every other 
part of it, appears a tissne of cells all of one shape and size throughout— polygons 
somewhat longer than wide. In other words, the Moss is wholly composed of ceUular 
tissue. 




18 THE APPLE MOSS. 

The stalk or pedicel is terminal or nearly so, erect, ^" 
to 10" (seconds = lines or twelfths of an inch) high, slender, 
yellowish, much shorter than the stem. 

The J^rtiit or capsule (1) is slightly nodding, globular 
when fresh, oval and showing many ribs or furrows when 
dry (2). The cap or calyptra (1) is small, smooth, split 
on one side, and soon vanishing, or ftigacious {fugere, to 
flee away). The lid or operculum is very small, somewhat 
conical. Under a microscope the peristome shows an outer 
row of 16 teeth, three of them being seen in the figure (3). 
There is also an inner row of as many hairs {cilice). 

The Name by which this Moss is known in science is 
Bartramia, It was conferred by Linnaeus, a. d. 1750, in 
honor of John Bartram,* of Philadelphia. But this, how- 
ever, is the title of a family or genus, including several 
kinds or species, A second name is therefore added to 
designate the species, f viz., Bartramia j;omiyor?>?i5 (Latin, 
pomum, apple ; forum, form). J 

The Record. — Following the example given in the pre- 
ceding lesson, the student will now fill the blanks in the 
annexed tablet. The descriptions are to be drawn from 
the text or from fresh observations of the plant (p. 17). 
See directions in " Suggestions to Teachers,^^ p. 6. 

The Order. — The Mosses are among the higher orders 
of the cryptogams. They have proper stems and green 



* Bartram was a Pennsylvania farmer, said by Linnaeus to be the greatest natural 
botanist then living. He traveled through the forests Avhich at that early day covered 
so large a part of our country, collected j^lants and established in Philadelphia the 
first Botanic Garden in America. 

t The same is true of our Polytrichum, whose specific name is Polytriclimn coin- 
miine {= common), or P. commune. 

X Many object to scientific names in an elementary book. It should be remem- 
bered, however, that tliey are brief, exact, and universal; i. e., they are used in all 
scientific books and are known to all nations. The common names are local, and 
vary not only in ditferent countries, but in diff'erent parts of the same country. In 
this work the English name is given first, then the classical or scientific. ^ The 
student should know both, but in conversation may use either. 



ANALYSIS OF THE APPLE MOSS. 



10 



o 
S 



> ^ 



O 
I 

o 
o 












20 THE POLYPOD FERl^. 

leaves, while the Moulds, Mushrooms and Lichens have 
neither. Not less than 2000 species have been described, 
chiefly inhabiting the cool and rocky regions of the Earth. 
On the cinders of Mt. Hood they form the first verdant 
specks of vegetation, and the cliffs of Mt. Washington are 
already green with mossy tufts and beds. Cold swamps are 
everywhere being filled with Sphagnum and other Mosses, 
whose remains accumulate and are, in time, condensed to 
peat — a valuable fuel in some countries where wood and 
coal are scarce. 

Review of the Scientific Terms used in this lesson : Cilia. 

Dicliot^mous. Fugacious. Subulate. Species. 

III. THE POLYPOD FERN. 

Description. — This comely Fern is found everywhere in 
old forests^ growing on stony steeps, and covering the rocks 
and boulders with a matted turf composed of their tangled 
stems and roots. 

Analysis. — We may conveniently divide this plant into 
two portions or regions ; first, that of the stem and root 
under ground (subterranean); second, that of the leaf and 
fruit abo\e ground (aerial). The analys^ will then proceed 
as before. 

The ^ooi consists of a number of thread-like or hair- 
like fibers, branching into iiJij fibrils, growing all along the 
stem. 

The Stem creeps about in the soil. It is many-branched, 
and covered with soft, narrow scales. As it never rises into 
the air it is properly a root-stock or rhizome.'^ 

* Plants with rhizomes are not uncommoB. They are always perennial, i. e., living 
from year to year, and otherwise noted for their strong vitality. Those which have 
rhizomes long, slender, branching, are inclined to take exchi^ive possession of the 
soil, and so become in fields and gardens troublesome weeds. Such is the Polynod 
in Europe. On the contrary, in sandy sea-shores and dykes ihey are useful, binding 
the soil into a firm turf resisting the washing of the waves. See XIII and LXV. 



POLYPODIUM. 



21 



The J^eaf is all of the plant that is seen while growing. 
It is more than a mere leaf, since it bears the fruit as well 

as the foliage. Being thus a combination ^ 

of stalk and leaf, it is called the frond 1 

(Lat. frons, a leafy branch). It stands ^3 

inclined so as to present an upper and an ^}£ 

under surface, both being green. At the "W^^ 

base its stalk is called the stipe. Its mar- "^^.ly^j 

gins are deeply cleft in numerous segments ^^0^^ 

termed pinncB (wings). Hence the frond ^^^^^5^',,^^^ 
is said to be pinnatifid or wing-cleft. 

The Vei7is or ribs demand a careful 
study. There are three kinds. The mid- 
vein IS the largest ; it is the continuation 
of the stipe from the hase of the frond to 



f^^ 




Fig. ni.— Polypodium vulgare : 1, a fruit-bearing vein ; 2, fruit-cluster ; 3, a side 
view ; 4, a capsule open ; 5, a spore, greatly magnified. 

its end or apex: 2d, the veinlets branch from the midvein 
and pass through the middle of each of the pinnae : 3d, the 
veinulets branch from the yeinlets, then di^dde or fork, and 



2S THE POLTPOD FER]^ 

SO end either in the edge (margin) of the frond, or in a 
fruit-cluster (2). This kind of veining (venation) in the 
larger veins is styled pinni-veined^ or feather-veined, and 
that in the \'^\w<\\.Qi^-—for'k'Vdned, 

The I^rzcit is formed at the end of veinulets (1), on the 
under surface (the back) of the frond.* It consists of 
numerous round, reddish brown, regularly arranged patches 
called sori {sorus, plur. sort, a heap). Under the microscope 
these heaps (2) are found to be composed of numerous 
roundish vessels (sporangia), each on a pedicel (3) and 
filled with spores. The contrivance for opening these 
spore cases is very curious. Each one is clasped by an 
elastic, vertical ring. ^Vhen ripe and dry, the rmg con- 
tracts, breaks asunder, tears open the cell (4), and throws 
the spores (5) to a distance. f 

Classifi3ation. — No flower is ever seen on this or any 
other Fern.J Therefore they are classed with the Mosses 
in thesubkinglom Cryptogamia, or Flowerless Plaints. 

The Name. — Polypod or Polypody is a contraction of 

* The spores of the brake are hidden under the margin of the fronds. Anciently 
it was thought that the Fern bears no seed. Later it was believed that the fern-seed 
was visible only on Pt. John's Eve, just at the moment when the saint was bom: 
*'But on St. John's mysterious night, 
Sacred to many a wizard spell, 
The hour when first to human eight 
Confest, the mystic fern-seed fell." 
The superstitious belief that he who could at that hour get some of the fem-see<A 
became invisible, is frequently alluded to by the old poets. Shakespeare says : 
"We have the receipt of fern-seed ; we walk invisible. * 
t The spores of the Ferns are numerous. Let the student calculate them in one ol 
these fronds. Professor Lindley obser^^es of the Hart's-tona'ue (Scolopendrium), a 
small Fern, that each frond produces about 80 fruit-clusters (sori), with an average ol 
about 4590 spore-cases in each cluster, and in each spore ca«e 50 snores. The num- 
ber of spores on each frond would then be SO x 4500 x 50 = 18,000,OOC If all should 
grow, they would in a few years cover the whole continent. 

t In germination, the spore of the Fern first develops into a green body resem 
blinu' a Liverwort, called the p?vthallium. On this prothallus are cert9' i little organs 
analogous to stamens and nistils, by which a second set of fipo7'es is generated, in 
advance of the true Fern. Thus in the Fern, as in some insects, there r< rv. alternate 
generaCion; it is first & Liverwort, tiien a Fern. (See Zooiogy, p. 830, Aphidae.) 



POLYPODIUAt 



23 



the Latin iiiinie, Polypddmm (Gr. polys, manj, poda, feet), 
given it by Linnaeus in allusion to its numerous creeping 
underground stems. As there are many species^ ours is 
named P. vulgdre, the Common Polypod. 

Scientific Terms defined in this lesson : Aerial. Fibrils. Fork- 
veined. Frond. Midvein. Pinna (plur. pinnae). Pinnatifid. Pinni 
veined. Prothallas. Rhizome. Root-stock. Sorus (plur. sori). Spo- 
rangium (plur. sporangia\ Stipe. Subterranean. Veinlet. Veinulet 
Venation. 

ANALYSIS OF THE POLYPOD PERK. 



Regions, 
Parts, 

Members, 
Organs. 


JESCRLPTION. 


SUBTERRANEAN. 


Farts under ground. 


Root. 


Many thread-like fibers and hair4ike fibrils. 


Stem. 


Creeping, branching, scaly. 


; AERIAL. 


Parts above ground. 


1 Fbond. 


Pinnatifid^ with oblong pinnce, 8' high. 


Stipe. 


Green, naked {not scaly), ! 

t 


j Veins. 


The frame-work. \ 


Midvein. 


- \ 
Largest vein, from base to apex, \ 


Yeinlets. 


One in the midst of each lobe, or pinna. 


Yeinulets. 


Forked, bearing the fruit. 


I Fruit. 


On the back of the frond. 


Sori. 


Naked, rounded. 


Sporangia. 


Eoundish^ stalked, ivith an elastic ring. 


Spores. 


Yellow, dust-like pa' deles, as seeds. 1 


CLASSIFICATION.— Subkingdom,CRYPTOGAMIA. 
Tribe, The Ferns. 
Name.— Genus, Polypbdium ; Species, P. mdgare. 



34 THE OSMUND FEKNS. 



IV. THE OSMUND FERNS. 

That tall Fern 
So stately^ o/ the queen Osmunda na^fned: 
Pla7it lovelier^ in its own retired abode 
On Grasmere" s beach^ than Naiad by the side 
Of Grecian brook, Wordsworth. 

Description. — Excursions in the old mossy damp woods, 
in the month of May, are generally rewarded by a rich dis- 
play of these large, majestic Ferns already in fruit. They 
grow in circular clumps springing from a thick subterra- 
nean stem, or root-stock. ' As in the Polypods, the fronds 
constitute the aerial region. They are very smooth, often 
3-5 feet in height, and a yard in width. 

Clayton's Osmunda, shown in the cuts, bearing its fruit 
in the middle of the frond, is earliest ripe, and therefore 
the first to be analyzed. 

Analysis. — The Eoot is of many fibers, with branches 
innumerable, short, spreading at right angles {divaricate), 
filling tho coil. 

The Ste?7Z is wholly subterranean, a thick blackish rhi- 
zome of loose texture and partly woody, living many years 
{perennial). 

The j^rond is twice divided; first into many distinct 
pinnae, arranged in pairs along the lengthened stipe or 
racliis (Gr. back-bone) ; then each pinna is cut into oblong 
lobes or segments. This twofold division is termed pinnate- 
pinnatifid or hipinnatifid. 

The venation, like that of Polypod, is pinni-veined and 
fork-veined (2). 

Yernation. — When starting from the ground in early 
spring, each frond is a coil rolled from the top inward and 
downward, gradually unfolding, scroll-like, as it grows (5). 




Fig. IV. Osmftnda Claytoni^na, with five dissections ; 2, a segment or lobe, shoiving 
the roL'Ked venation ; 3, clusters of spore-cases (enlarged) ; 4, one of the spore-cases 
(capsules) still further magnified ; 5, young frond, showing its mode of vernation. 

Note. — Specific names are generally adjectives^ and should never begin with a 
capital letter, except (1) when the name is derived from a person or a country, as 
O. Claytoniana, or Erythrdnium Americanum ; and (2) when it is a noun, as Dode- 
catheon Meadia. 

2 



26 THE OSMUND FEKIS^S. 

This mode of biid-folding* is termed tirmMe (Lat. ciTC%^ 
nuSf a comiDass). 

The J^7^uU is densely clustered on some of the middle 
pinnae, which contract their leaf-portion to a mere greer 
edge. The sporangia or spore-cases open lengthwise into 
two halves or valves, containing the dust-like spores. 

The ITame of this noble genus of Ferns is Osmunda, 
from Osmunder, one of the titles of the Celtic Thor, god 
of thunder, whence we also derive the w^ord Thursday 
(Thor's-day). The species just analyzed is 0. Claytoniana^ 
named in honor of John Clayton, one of our earliest 
botanists. 

0. cimiamomea, th^ Cinnamon Fern, has some of the 
central fronds of each clump wholly fertile and condensed 
into fruit, tall cinnamon-colored clusters, looking like flames 
—whence they are often called the Flaming Fern. 

0. regdUsy Eoyal Osmund, our tallest Fern, with its 
fronds separated into innumerable distinct leaflets, and its 
fruit all terminal, is celebrated for its regal beauty, f 

The Order. — Ferns constitute one of the tribes oi 
orders of the Cryptogams, named in science Filices. They 
grow in all countries, but are most abundant in New 
Zealand and the tropical islands, where the climate is warm 
and damp. Of the 2000 species known, not more than 200 
are native outside the tropics, and not over half of these in 
the United States. 

The Ferns are the largest of the Cryptogams. In the 
Tropics they become trees, their pinnated plumes drooping 

" The term vernation (vemus^ the spring) was invented by Linnaeus to express 
the general idea of bud-foiding. 

t In Europe this Osmund grows to a height often of 11 feet, and its great masses 
of green leaf-sprays form a marked feature in the landscape. Its tall stalk generally 
stands erect, but sometimes it acquires a drooping habit, as at the Lakes of Killar- 
ney. It there fringes the banks, especially of the river which connects the lakes, and 
itB long fronds arching gracefully over, dip into the crystal water, forming coverltj 
whence the birds gaze fearlessly out upon the passing traveler. 



OSMUXDA. 27 

from the summit of trunks 40 feet in height. Fern remains 
are abundant in bituminous coal (see Geology, p. 155), and 
the rocky roofs of the mines are frescoed with the delicate 
tracery of their fronds in wonderful variety. These fossils 
indicate that at one period of the Earth^s history, the Perns 
constituted a large part of the vegetation. 

Among our native Ferns are the Maidenhair (Adiantum), 
the Climbing Fern (Lygodium), the Common Brake (Pteris). 
Splendid tropical Perns flourish in our conservatories. Many 
of our own may be easily cultivated in the open air, or in 
W:irdian cases with pleasing results. 

The Ferns are not important either as food or medicine. 
The rhizomes and young shoots of several species are eaten 
in Australia and Oceanica in the absence of better food. 
Aspidium fragrans has the scent of raspberries and has been 
used for tea. From the Maidenhair a cough syi'up called 
Syrup of Capillaire, is made. Aspidium Filix-mas is an 
effectual vermifuge. 

The Cryptogams. — Besides the Ferns and the Mosses, 
this Grand Division includes also the Clubmosses (Lycopods), 
the Horsetails (Equisetaceae), the Liverworts (Hepaticae), the 
Lichens, the Seaweeds (Algae) and the Molds and Mush- 
rooms (Fungi), etc., plants descending to the lowest rank, 
the simplest structure, and the minutest dimensions.* 

Scientific Terms defined ; — Bipinnatifid. Circinate. DiYi.ricate 
Perennial. Pinnate-pinnatifid. Rachis. Vernation. 

* The Cryptogams are numerous and minute beyond conception. They inhabit 
Bvery clime, from the Equator to the Poles. They lie at the foundation of all life, 
Without them vegetable and consequently animal life would be impossible. They 
-their lower tribes— are the first to grow on cinders, sands and rocks. The last 
they gradually disintegrate, and, by the decay of successive generations, form a^ 
length a soil capable of sustaining plants of higher orders — grains, grasses and trees 
on which animals may live. Thus plants of higher rank replace those of lower, an< 
fatten on their spoils. But sootier or later these also perish, and then the Crypto 
gams resume their sway. On fallen leaves and trunks they multiply, encompassing 
penetrating, consuming, and in a few years restore to the earth, with interest, th' 
materials which they had borrowed. 



28 



ANALYSIS OP A FEEN. 



o 

I— I 
Ph 






C3 









■^ 
§ 



:<1 



ft 



t3 



O 



o 

l-l 
Eh 

Q 



I 



H 

^ 
< 
^ 



ERYTHKONIUM. "^^f 

V. THE DOG-TOOTH VIOLET. 

Description. — Spring has come again. The winds blow 
soft from the West and South over the melting snowbanks. 
Birds once more fill the air with song^ while the plants, 
aw^akened from their winter^s sleep, put on their robes of 
leaf and flower. Down in the woody vale, or in the thicket by 
the river, the Dogtooth Violet already hangs out its yellow 
bell. Though scentless, the flower attracts by its airy grace. 
We must dig carefully around its tender stalk if we would 
raise it entire, for its root strikes deep into the loamy soil. 
Examining the plant as a w^hole, we find it smooth and pol- 
ished in surface, plump and fleshy in substance, and plain 
in outline. As it liyes above-ground only one season, dying 
at the approach of Winter, it is an heri. 

Analysis. — The whole plant may be divided into two 
parts — ihe Leaf region and the Flower region, and each of 
these again into three parts. To the Leaf -region belong the 
root, stem and leaf ; to the Flower-region, the stalk, flower, 
and fruit. A little reflection will show that the former parts 
work for the plant itself, and the latter for its posterity which 
is to spring from its seed. * 

The Leaf Kegiox. — The ^oot is fibrous, i. e., it con- 
sists of fibers ^nd fibrils. The former start from the bottom 
of the stem deep in the ground, and are long and white; the 
latter are the minute subdivisions of the fibers. 

The Stem is a simple, slender column [cattlis) with its 
lower end apparently enlarged into a bulb, whence it is called 
a bullous stem. The bulb, which is egg-shaped or ovoid (Lat. 
ovum, an Qgg), consists of many scales, thick, white, and 



* Hence the former are called the vegetative organs, and the latter, the repro- 
ductive. 



30 



THE DOG-TOOTH VIOLET. 







Fig. v.— Erythronium Araericanum : 1, an expanded flower ; 2, plan of the flower ; 
3, the pistil ; 4, 5, sections of the fruit ; 6, section of a seed, showing the embryo anc 
albumen. 



ERYTHROKIUM. 31 

broad^ growing out of the solid base from which the stem 
arises. 

The Jjeaves, 2 in all^ are placed nearly opposite each 
other on the stem, the lower being the larger. Their rich 
green color is singularly yariegated with purplish and 
Avhitish blotches. They stand out on a narrow base — a foot- 
stalk. This is called the petiole^ and the expansion of the 
leaf is the blade. The latter is in outline both elliptical and 
lanceolate, so that we may style it eUijotical-lcmceolate. The 
apex is acute. The margins are even and entire (without 
teeth or notches). 

Yenaiion. — The leaf is marked with fine lines running 
lengthwise in nearly parallel cur-yes corresponding with the 
contour of the margin. They indicate the course of the 
veins and show what is called a parallel yenation. 

The Flower Eegiox. — The Stalk which supports the 
flower is called the 'peduncle (a term higher in rank than 
pedicel). Its top, forming the basis of the flower, is the 
torus. It bends under the weight of the flower, but bears 
the fruit erect. 

The Slower is the latest, gayest, and frailest part of the 
plant. It is solitary^ drooping or nodding from the curyed 
top of the peduncle. We can easily count 13 distinct mem- 
bvirs or organs composing it. There are 6 lanceolate recurved 
(bent back) leaflets, and six slender columns, all standing on 
the torus around one central column. The 6 leaflets together 
constitute the perianth {Gy. peri, around, antlios, flower).* 

These 13 may be assorted into 4 gTOups of organs. The 3 
outer leaflets, (c) orange-red on the back, are sepals, and 
together form the calyx (cup, or goblet). The 3 inner are 

* The leaflets of the perianth are recurved more or less according to the hour of 
the day and the amount of sunlight. At night they clos ', and gradually open as the 
day advances, and at midday in a bright sun they are recurved as shown in our cut. 
See XXI, on the Sleep of plants. 



32 THE DOG-TOOTH VIOLET. 

petals {p) and constitute the corolla (crown). Let the stn* 
dent take note of the two blunt teeth opposite each other 
near the base of each petal. Within the corolla and peri- 
anth are the 6 stamens— those slender bodies arranged in 2 
circles. Each stamen is made up of a filament {fila, thread) 
bearing at the top an anther— ?i little oblong box with 3 cells 
opening lengthwise by slits. These contain minute grains of 
pollen, which in due time escape by the open slits. 

The 'To2le7i must be studied under the microscope. Then 
it appears composed of innumerable grains, oval, yellowish- 
brown, and peculiarly marked (7). Their use in aiding the 
formation of the seed will be shown in future lessons.* 

The "PisHl {pistillum, pestle) is the central organ (3). 
Being the most important part of all, destined to become 
the fruit and seed, it is thus surrounded and protected by 
all the other organs. It is composed of the ovary at the 
base, the stigma at the top, and the style between. The 
stigma is 3-lobed, and on dissecting the ovary (4, 5) we shall 
find 3-cells. May we not infer that there are 3 pistils united 
into this one compound pistil ? 

Plax of the Flower. — The diagram (2) exhibits the 
relative position of the different members of this flower as 
they stand upon the torus. They occupy five circles. The 
outer circle is the calyx, and c c c the position of the sepals. 
The 2d circle is the corolla, and p p 2^ the position of the 
petals. The 3d and 4th circles are the stamens, and s theii 



* Infinitely more pollen is produced than is needed, just as in spring time there 
are more blossoms on the apple tree than could possibly be matured. So abundant 
is the yellow pollen developed and shed by the Pine that we frequently see the ground 
in Pine forests covered with it ; and swepi off by the winds, it falls at a distance, 
alarming the ignorant with a " sulphur rain." The amount shed by the grasses fills 
the air, producing in sensitive nostrils the effect called the "hay fever."" A single 
Paeony-flower, according to Darwin, produced 3,654,000 grains of pollen. Everywhere 
in the floral world we meet with the two opposite rules of profuse prodigality and 
extreme economy. " It is the moral of the New Testament story— feeding the hun- 
gry thousands and then gathering up the fragments that nothing be lost.'* 



ERYTHROXIUM. 33 

places severally. The inner circle shows the position of the 
3 united ovaries (o o o, called also carpels). Each member 
alternates in position with its next neighbors; e. g., the* 
petals with the sepals and the outer stamens, &c. And the 
members are all in 3s — 3 sepals, 3 petals, 3 outer stamens^ 
&c. Hence the flower is said to be alternating^ symmetrical, 
and 3-parted, 

The J^ruit is the full-grown and complete ovary. The 
flower is of short duration. The sepals, petals, stamens and 
style soon fade, wither, and fall. They are deciduous. But 
the ovary is persistent^ growing, and ripening a month after 
the flower has done its work. It is then a dry seed-box — a 
capsule, having its 3 cells packed full of seeds. 

Here we come to the ultimate product of the plant, that 
for which it lived, grew, bloomed, and labored. In the shell 
of the seed (called the testa) is safely inclosed the rudiment 
of a new plant ready to be developed into the likeness of the 
parent. A careful dissection (6) will show the structure 
of this rudiment — the emlryo. It appears a simple cylin- 
drical body Ijdng in a white fleshy substance called albumen, 
(See p. 42.) 

Classification. — The Dogtooth Violet, by the presence 
of its conspicuous flower, is in marked contrast with the 
Pigeon-wheat and the Polypod. They represent the Flow- 
erless (Cryptogamia) and this the Flowering Plants (Phenc- 
gamia).* Moreover, by the presence Q>i parallel-veined leaves, 
S'parted floivers, and seeds ivith a simple {not lohed) mihryo, 
this plant represents the Endogeks, one of the two provinces 
into which the Flowering Plants are divided. (For the other 
province, see p. 43.) 

The Name. — This plant is a Lily rather than a Violet, 

* Thus the Vegetable Kingdom is parted into two subkingdoms, known bj the 
absence or presence of visible flowers. This division was first recognized A. D. 168S, 
by John Eay, of England. 



34 



THE DOG-TOOTH YIOLET. 



ANALYSIS OF THE DOG-TOOTH YIOLET. 



ORGANS, &c. 


DESCRIPTION. 


THE PLANT. 


A smooth, Jleshy herb. 


i 

O 

S 
K 

c: 

& 

o 

1 

3 

< 


INFLORESCENCE 


Solitaj^y, terminal, pedunculate. 


FLOWER. 


Drooping, bell-form, S-imrted, alternating. 


Calyx. 


Orange, greenish, and yellow. 


Sepals. 


3, lameolate, recurved. 


Corolla. 


Within the calyx, yellwju. 


Petals. 


3, lanceolate, yellow, recurved, 2-toothed. 


Stamens. 


6, in two rows or sets. 


Filament. 


Linear, yellowish. 


Anther. 


Linear-oblong, 2-celled, yellow. 


Pollen. 


Elliptical, yellowish, minute grains. 


Pistil. 


Triplex, and triply compound. 


Ovary 


Green, 3-sided, 3-celled, persistent. 


Style. 


Club-shaped or davate, deciduous. 


Stigma. 


At top of the style, 3-lobed. 


FRnT. 


An erect, compound capsule. 


Pericarp. 


Dry, opening, by 3-vahes. 


Seeds. 


Many, ovoid, with a curved point. 


LEAVES. 


2, nearly opposite, mottled. 


Petiole. 


At the base of the leaf, linear. 


Blade. 


Elliptic-lanceolate, acute. 


Venation. 


Parallel. 


STEM. 


Mostly subterranean, blanched. 


Bulb. 


At the base, (/void, white, of scales. 


Caulis. 


Simple, 6-10' long, annual. 


ROOT. 


Consisting of white fibers, deep down. 




LOCALITY.-Da 
CLASSIFICATK 

NAME.— Englisl 
—Latin, J 


mp shady woods, (Date) April 10th, 1877. 
3N.-Siibldngdom, PHEXOGAMIA. 

—Province, ENDOGENS. 

—Order, The Liltworts, 
I, Dog-tooth Violet. 
KrytYwowlwm Airiericaniiin. 



TULIPA. 35 

as we shall see hereafter (p. 257) ; hence the common nanio is 
false as well as inelegant. The term Dogtooth may refer 
to the two indentures on each petal (p. 32), or to its bulbs 
as they grow in England. The scientific or classic name is 
Erytlirdnium (eruihroSy red, the color it often assumes in 
Europe). The name of our species is E. Americdnum, 

Scientific Terms Defined. — Acute. Alternating. Anther 
Bulbous stem. Calyx. Capsule. Carpels. Caulis. Corolla. Decid- 
uous. Endogens. Entire. Fibrils. Fibrous. Filament. Herb. 
Ovary. Ovoid. Parallel-veined. Peduncle. Perianth. Persistent. 
Petals. Petiole. Phenogamia. Pistil. Pollen. Recurved. SepaJs. 
Solitary. Stamens. Stigma. Style. Torus. 

VI. THE TULIP. 

Description. — The tulip is said to be a natiye of Mt, 
Taurus and the adjacent region. It has been cultiyated by 
florists for more than three centuries in Europe, and one in 
America. It blossoms in the garden a week or two later 
than the wild Erythronium, with which it is closely related. 
Careful study will reveal between them striking differences 
as well as resemblances. Viewing the plant as a whole, 
mark its height, its glaucous (sea-green) * color, its smooth 
surface. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Kegiox.— The bulb, if cut across 
will exhibit a series of concentric rings, each one being an 
entire layer. Bulbs so constructed are called tunicated,\ 
—a form familiar in the Onion. The Leaves are large 



* According to the Greek Mythology, Glaucus was the name of a fisherman who 
leaped into the sea and " by transmutation strange" became a sea-god. Hence the 
botanists use the word to express the pale sea-green color of the foliage of certain 
plants, as well as of the whitish powder which sometimes covers them. 

t The Lily grows from a scaly hulb, i. e., a bulb composed of scales, each forming 
but a partial Cnot entire) layer or ring. In the heart of the Tulip bulb, protected by 
these layers, are hidden not only the future stem, but the leaves also, and even the 
coming flower with all its various organs. This bulb also contains under its oute? 



36 



THE TULIP. 



and few, rarely more than 3. In margin, they agree with 
Erythronium except that they are wavy. In figure, they are 
partly lanceolate, and partly with 
the outline of an egg, being 
broadest just below the middle: 
hence they are ot'^^^^-lanceolate. 
They have a clasping base and no 
petiole. Compare the venation 
with that of Erythronium (p. 31). 
The Floayee Region.— Here 
note the attitude of the flower 
in contrast with that of Erythro- 
nium; but its organs are of the 
same number and kind.* The 

Sepals and petals are 

distinguished only by 

their position. Which 

outer ? They are all 

ovate, blunt {obtuse) at the apex, 

concave, and not recurved nor 

spreading. The ovary and its re- 

M.' ^ • • ^1. 4? -P Fig. VI. Tulipa 

suiting pod is m the lOrm OI a Gesneriana; 2,sec- 

. mi o ^- tionof thebulb;3, 

triangular prism. The 3 stigmas thepistn. 





are the 
broadly 



coat two minute buds ready to be developed in turn to take the place of the parent 
(2). Thus, after flowering and fruiting, we shall find the bulb which we planted 
shriveled and empty, having imparted its substance to its offspring, but already 
replaced by another or two, full grown from the buds, and replete with rudiments 
like the former. So provident is Nature. " No leaf drops till a new one is prepared 
to take its place : no flower perishes naturally till its house is made ready and fur- 
nished with seeds. In Autumn, the sad season of decay, there is yet as much of life 
as of death." Amidst the tokens of death are the elements of growth. In the 
autumn buds of the Oak are hidden its future leaves ; in those of the Lilac, its com- 
ing leaves and flowers. In the bulb of the Hyacinth, another season's blossoms are 
clearly seen even with the naked eye. The rich mucilage of the Slippery Elm, and 
the sweet sap of the Sugar Maple, are provided beforehand for feeding the young 
buds and hastening their early development. Thus within a few days a large tree 
will cover itself with foliage and bloom. 

* The flower of the Tulip like that of the Rose (p. 114) is often double, in which 
state it is unfit for analysis. 



TULIPA. 37 

are quite distinct, sessile (sitting) on the ovary, there being 
no style. 

The Name is from a Persian word signifying a turban, 
whose gay colors it resembles. In Latin it becomes Tulipa, 
The Common Tulip, here figured, is T, Gesneriana, being 
dedicated to Gesner, a Swiss botanist, who saw it blooming 
in a garden in Augsburg and first made it public in 1559.* 

Yarieties. — This flower indulges in many freaks and 
fancies as to the cut and color of her robes. Now they are 
single, now double, and now semidouble. Here they are 
yellow, there white, and even crimson, purple or carmine. 
Again they are mixed — striped, spotted or flecked in endless 
combinations of colors. These are merely varieties of the 
same species, induced by their treatment in cultiyation. 
Names are given them by the florists, rarely by botanists, 
such as Bizarres, Due Van Thol, Bubloones, Comte de Pom- 
padour, Parrotts, &c.f 

The Record. — With these few hints to guide, let the 

student now complete the analysis of the Tulip and write its 

record in the annexed tablet. 

Scientific Terms.— Clasping. Obtuse. Ovate. Scaly bulb. 
Sessile. Tunicated. Varieties. 

* The taste for cultivating the Tulip spread into the Netherlands, and about 1634 
increased to such an extent that all classes began to speculate in the bulbs. Houses 
and lands were sold to be invested in flowers. Ordinary business was neglected. 
Sudden fortunes were made. Nobles, mechanics and chimney-sweeps alike flocked 
to the tulip-market. Prices increased until a single bulb (the Semper Augustus) sold 
as high as $6,000 of our present money. A story is told of an English botanist who, 
traveling in Holland, happened to see a tulip-root in a conservatory. Ignorant of 
its value he began to peel off its coats to examine its peculiar structure. While im- 
mersed in his botanical study, the owner suddenly rushed in and in an agony of rage 
shouted '' It's an Admiral Van der Eyck ! " In vain the traveler protested his scien- 
tific intentions. He was dragged before a magistrate, where, to his consternation, he 
learned that the innocent-looking bulb was worth 4000 florins and that he was to be 
held in confinement until he found securities for that sum. — At last this tulip rage 
ran its course. Prices suddenly fell. The rich of yesterday became the poor of to- 
day. A commercial crisis ensued. Holland did not recover from the " Tulip mania "^ 
for many years. — The love for this flower still exists in that country. We import our 
best bulbs from Holland, and the wealthy Dutchman boasts of his fine tulip-' as a rich 
Englishman does of his horses or paintings. 

+ For the Order of Tulip and Erythronium, see LXVII. 



38 



THE TULIP. 
ANALYSIS OF THE TULIP. 



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CLAYTONIA. 39 

VII. THE SPRING BEAUTY. 

Description. — Early in Spring, in the grassy meadow, 
along the shady margins of the woods, or under tangled thick- 
ets, often in company with the Dog-tooth Violet, lo ! the 
Sprmg Beauty! Its roots, like those of its neighbor, strike 
deep into the soil, and in order to lire the plant entire we 
must make careful use of the trowel. Viewed as a whole, 
the Spring Beauty in outline, surface, and substance, resem- 
bles the Dog-tooth Violet. It is also divisible into the same 
regions and parts. 

Analysis.— The Leaf Eegiok. — The ^oot is a new 
and singular structure. There is a massive body, irregularly 
rounded, brown without, white and starchy within. To 
this tuber, "^ as it is called, are attached the ordinary fibers 
and fibrils. These are the true working roots, absorbing plant- 
food from the ground, while the tuber serves as a reservoir 
for its reception after being digested and changed to starch. 

The Stem is a simple, slender column, a few inches in 
height. In substance, it is lieriaceous, that is, tender, juicy, 
flexible, greenish. In attitude, it is erect and upright; for. 
though weak, it stands unsupported. 

The J^eaveSy 2 in number, grow opposite each other in 
the air and light at the top of the stem. In outline, they 
are narrowly lance-shaped, nearly as in the Pigeon-wheat, 
linear-lanceolate, or almost linear. They are fixed to the 
stem by their base without the intervention of a petiole; that 
is to say, they are sessile (sitting), while the upper end, the 
apex, as in all plants, is free ; their margin is entire, and 
color, green. 

The Flower Eegioi^. — The J^lower is a curious gem, 

* Botanists generally consider tlie tuber as a member of the stem. But to avoid 
subtle distinctions at this^arly stage, we here incline to the popular view regarding 
it as a member of tho root. 



40 



THE SPRIKG BEAUTY. 




EiG. Ml.— Claytonia Virginica : 1, plan of the flower ; 2, a petal with a stamen 
opposite ; 3, 4, stamens, front and rear view ; 5, the pistil ; 6, ovary dissected ; 7, an 
ovule; 8, fruit just opening, with calyx ; 9, a seed ; 10, the embryo. 

inyiting study, and losino; none of its interest and loveliness 
by a close inspection. Let us first observe the situation and 
arrangement, or what the botanists call 



CLAYTONIA. 41 

The T7iJlo7*esce7ice . The flowers form a cluster above 
fche leaves at the termination of the stem. In the cluster 
appears (a to V) a general foot-stalk — \kiQ jpedunde — support- 
ing the whole; an axis (5 to c), called the racliis (spine) 
running through the midst ; and several special foot-stalks 
[d), pedicels, branching from the rachis^ each bearing one 
flower. The whole cluster so arranged is a raceme.'^ The 
flowers do not all open at once, but in a regular succession, 
beginning with the lowest in the raceme and ending with 
the highest. While the lower are in bloom or past bloom, 
the upper are in bud or just opening. The word centripetal f 
is used to express this special mode of inflorescence. 

The Flower is made up of four sets of organs, each set 
a circle one within another. First, the calyx or cup (c) con- 
taining all the rest. It consists of 2 green leaflets called 
sepals, Next within is the delicately colored corolla consist- 
ing of 5 rose-tinted and red-lined petals J {p). Third, a 
circle of 5 stamens (5), each consisting of a slender filament 
(/) tipped with an oblong anther [h). We must not fail to 
observe their unusual situation — each opposite to {opposing) 
a petal (2). Observe also (3, 4) how the anther is attached 
to the filament, how its 2 cells open, and how it seems to face 
this way or that. Here it faces the pistil, and we say it is 
introrse ; and the cells open lengtlnvise. And fourth, the 
pistil (5) in the center of the fiower, consists of one ovary 
one style and three stigmas {g). If we dissect the ovary (Q), 



* Sometimes in vigorous specimens the rachis divides, forming two racemes oi a 
double raceme. 

t The top of the inflorescence is regarded as its center, the base the circumfer- 
ence ; hence the fitness of the word {centrum^ the center, peto, I seek). 

X The colored converging lines and veins which mark the petals of Spring Beauty, 
Pansy, Geranium and other flowers, serve as honey-guides for insects. They inva- 
riably converge towards the nectaries at the base of the petals and stamens. An 
in>iect following them is led directly to where the honey is secreted. On its way its 
body is dusted with pollen, or, already dusted, is brought into contact with a pistil 
ready to receive it. 



43 THE SPRiHQ BEAUTY. 

we shall find within its cell 3 or G young seeds {ovules). Here 
also, as in the pistil of Erythrdnium, are clear indications of 
tri-unity. 

The I^ruit. While the ovary is growing and ripening 
into fruit, it is attended and protected by the persiste7it 
calyx (8); but the corolla, stamens and style are early decide 
uous. The fruit is finally a dry seed-box or capsule (8), 
opening by 3 valves, and disclosing 3 or more black, shining, 
lens-shaped seeds (9). 

The Seed. Here again Ave come to the ultimate product 
of the plant. The seed contains the curved embryo (10)— 
the young plant slumbering in its cradle. Surrounding it is 
a white mass of allumeii^ {alius, white), a storehouse of 
food provided for the sustenance of the young plant after 
?jwakihg and before its roots can draw nourishment from 
the soil. Mark here the structure of the embryo (in con- 
trast with that of Erythronium), how it is curved, and cleft 
at the upper end into two equal seed-lobes, or cotyledons.^ 

^2an of tJie Flojper. — 'Y\iQ diagram (1) indicates 
the relative position of the organs as they stand on the torus; 
firsts the 2 sepals ; 3d, the 5 petals ; 3d, the 5 stamens oppos- 
ing the petals ; 4th, the ovary — 3 in 1. Why then is this 
flower unsymmetrical? Why is it 5-parted ? 

i^sHvation. — This diagram also shows how the enve- 
lopes are folded in the bud, that is, their cestivation {cestivus, 
in summer) ; the buds themselves will show it much better. 
The margins do not exactly meet, but overlie each other like 

* By a wise provision, the albumen is deposited in the form of starch, which is 
insoluble in water, or else the first raiu might dissolve and waste the young plant'b 
inheritance. There is, however, laid up also in the seed a bit of ferment called gluten. 
By the action of moisture this will slowly change the starch to sugar ; and that being 
soluble can be used by the tiny shoot as it needs. (See Chemistry^ pp. 184 and 194.) 

+ The ovules in the cut 6 are growing erect from the base of the cell ; (7) shows 
an ovule more advanced, with its stalk {funiculus). Comparing this with (10), it ig 
evident that the ovule in growing bent over on itself, bringing its apex near its base. 



CLAYTONIA. 43 

shingles on a roof, i. e., are imbricated (imbrex^ a tile).* A 
special mode of imbrication is seen in the petals, of which 2 
are wholly within, 2 wholly without, and 1 is partly both, 
having one edge within and one without. This is the quin- 
mncial aestivation and very common. 

The Name, Claytdnia, was given by Linnaeus to this 
plant in honor of John Clayton, who sent it to him, in 1757, 
from Virginia. Hence this species is called C Virgmica. 
Another species was first seen by Michaux, about 1800, in 
the mountains of ISi . Carolina and so named C, Carolinicma. 
But it is far more common northward from New England to 
Wisconsin. You may know it by its leaves being shorter 
and broader — elliptic-lanceolate. What other differences do 
you find ? 

The Order. — The Olaytonias belong to the same order 
with the splendid flowering Portulacas, viz. Poktulacace^, 
or the Purslanes. That troublesome weed of the gardens 
— ^the common Purslane, is also a species of the genus Par- 
tiildca — P. olerdcea. Its small yellow flowers appear in 
Summer, and its curious seed-boxes in September. These 
open by a lid crosswise, and bear the classic name of pyxis 
(a box. Fig. XLIII, 5). In some countries Purslane is es- 
teemed as a pot-herb, and a salad, on account of its cooling 
antiscorbutic properties [Lindley), 

Classification. — In contrast with Erjrthronium, the 
genus Claytonia;; and its order, by their 2-lobed embryo, and 
their flowers 5-parted (or at least not 3-parted), represent the 
ExoGEKS, the other province of the Flowering Plants (p. 33). 

Scientific Terms,— iEstivation. Albumen. Centripetal inflo- 
rescence. Herbaceous. Imbricated. Introrse. Opposing stamens. 
Pedicel. Pyxis. Quincuncial. Raceme. Racbis. Sessi-e. Tuber. 

* In other plants the sepals or petals may be found to meet edge to edge. Such 
aestivation is called valvate. Indeed the valves of the capsule of this plant thus meef. 
While closed (8). Seo other modes of testivation described in p. 8.. 



44 



ANALYSIS OF SPniXa BEAUTY. 



The Record.— With the following tablet as a guide, let 
the student record the analysis of our other Claytonia, or of 
Purslane, or a Portulaca, in the annexed blank tablet. 



Organs. 


DESCRIPTION. 


THE PLANT. 


An herb, terrestrial, 3—6' high, fleshy, smooth. 


ROOT. 


Brown fibers with a roundish, starchy tuber. 


: STEM. 


Herbaceous, simple, upright. 


i LEAVES. 


2, opposite, sessile, linear, or lance-linear, 3—6' long. 


j INFLORESCENCE. 


Terminal raceme, with long pedicels, centripetal. 


FLOWER. 


5-parted, unsymm£trical, opposing, 8" diameter. 


Calyx. 


2-parted, green. 


Sepals. 


Persistent, 2, erect, ovate, short. 


Corolla. 


5-parted, delicately colc/red and pencilled. 


Petals. 


5, deciduous, spreading, oboxate, roseate. 


Stamens. 


5, opposing the petals. 


Filament. 


Slender, white. \ 


Anther. 


Opening lengthwise, oblong, innate. 


Pistil— OvAET. 


Triple, ovoid, 6-ovuled, green. 


Style. 


Slender, green-white. 


Stigmas. 


3, pinTC'Colored. ' 


Frutt. 


Capsule, 3-sided, conical, inclosed in the calyx. 1 


Pericarp. 


Dry, 3-valved, 1-celled or partly 3-ceUed. j 


Seeds. 


S—6, lens-shaped, black, shining. i 


LOCALITY. 
CLASSIFIC 

NAME.-En 
-La 


—Low, damp soil. (Date), April 25. 
ATION.-Subkingdom, FLOWERING PLANTS. 

—Province, EXOGENS. 

—Order, Portulacace^. 
glish, Spring Beauty. 
tin, Claytonia Virginica. 



ANALYSIS OF 



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46 



THE EARLY CROWFOOT, 



VIII. THE EARLY CROWFOOT. 

Description. — In May and June the fields are resplen- 
dent with Buttercups. As early as April we find one kind, 
at least, gilding the rocky hills and woods. In this, and its 

portrait, root, stems, leaves, 
^ flowers, stalks, and fruit are 
present. 

Analysis. — The 
2ioot is a bundle (fas- 
cicle) of fibers, some of 
which are thickened, 
fleshy, almost tuber- 
ous ; we call such 
roots fasciculate. 
They are strong 
and durable. 
They have sur- 
vived the frosts 
of the past win- 
ter ; and if you 
have considered 
the Crowfoot 
plant from year 
to year, you have 
learned that it is a perennial Tieri. Although the parts 
above ground perish in Autumn, the root still lives and 
sends up another plant in the following Spring, and so on for 
many seasons. The symbol adopted for such an herb is li. 

The Stem (or stems, for there may be several arising 
from the same root) is green and herbaceous, branching, 
hairy^ 6-10' high, and ending in the flower-stalks. 




Fig. Vni.— Raiilinculus fascicularis : 3, a head of car- 
pels ; 4, a single carpel ; 5, the seed in the achenium ; 6, 
seed dissected, showing the embryo in albumen. 



EANUNCULUS. 47 

The JOeaves are many. Most of them are radical, arising 
with the stem from the root {radix)] others are cauline, 
growing from the stem {caulis) above the base. They are 
also alternate in arrangement — one above another, spirally (p. 
193). The lower leaves are borne on long, slender ^e^iofes ; 
the upper are sessile, having no petiole. The blades are 
ternately divided, i. e., into three divisions, or pinnately 
into five, and the terminal division is stalked ; then all tne 
divisions are cut into lobes. 

The yez?is, although present, are not always discernible. 
In Spring Beauty they are concealed. In Crowfoot they are 
not conspicuous, yet evidently are not parallel, as in Ery- 
thronium. Under a magnifier they seem to form a net- 
work ; that is, they are reticulated {reticula, a net). 

The Flowers are borne on peduncles, which terminate 
the stem and branches — one on each peduncle. They are 
'perfect and complete, having all the proper and essential 
floral organs.* The calyx consists of five lanceolate, green- 
ish, spreading sepals, much smaller than the petals. The 
corolla consists of five yellow, shining, spreading petals. In 
outline the petals are inversely lanceolate or ovate (oS-lance- 
olate or o5-ovate), being broadest above the middle. At the 
base there is a honey-pore, which we may call a nectary, 
covered by a little scale (Fig. IX, 2). The stamens are many 
in number — said to be indefinite (denoted thus, oo), although, 
if carefully counted, they will generally be found some mu.lti= 
pie of 5; as 25, 30, etc. The ieura poly androus [polys, many, 
andres, stamens) is of a similar meaning. The filament, 
anther, and pollen we leave to be identified by the studen t. 

* A flower is \)0i2imQ,di\\.j perfect when it has both stamecs and pistils. The sym- 
bol is 5 . It is complete when it has stamens, pistils, calyx and coroUa-^all thv^ 
proper organs. A flower is apetalous when the calyx is present without the corolla ; 
it is staminate {$) when having stamens without pistils, Budi pistillate ( $) pistils 
withoQt stamens. 




48 THE EARLY CROWPOOT. 

Notice how the stamens stand directly on the torus, neither 
ad'hering to any other member, nor co-hering among them- 
selves. They are liypogynoits {hyjjo^ under, gyiie, the pistil). 
This character is of great significance. * (Fig. VIII, 9.) The 
pistils are also numerous, twenty or more, generally some 
multiple of 5. Their form and structure are remarkable— 
one-sided (5), consisting each of 
an ovary tipped with a sessile 
stigma, without a style. 

The J^rtiit. In a few days the 
work of the yellow buttercup is ^ flower of r. fascicui^ris. 
done. Bees and other insects have drained its nectaries and 
scattered its pollen. The sepals, petals and stamens fade and 
fall. These are the deciduous parts. But the pistils still 
persist, attached to the torus, growing and forming a round- 
ish head (4) of as many little fruits (carpels) as there were 
pistils. Let us dissect one of these carpels (6). It holds 
just one seed in one cell. It is an aclienium — a simple fruit 
formed of one carpel (not of three, as in Erythronium). In 
the figure is represented a section of the seed, showing a 
small embryo with two cotyledons, imbedded in albumen. 
Here is work for the microscope. 

The Name. — There are many kinds of Buttercup- 
Crowfoots. Some of them delight in ponds and sluggish 
streams, with the frogs for their companions. For this rea- 
son, Linnaeus named them all Ranunculus (a little frog). 
Ranunculus is therefore the name of a group of similar 
forms, = a Genus, including all sorts and kinds of Butter- 
cup-Crowfoots. The specific form here figured and de- 
Gcribed, known at sight by its early date,f showy flovv^ers, 

* On account of their hypogynous stamens, and the entire freedom or distinctness 
OJ ad their floral organs, botanists have assigned the Buttercups and their order to 
the highest rank in the Vegetable Kingdom. 

t There is no danger of confounding this species with that other one which also 



RANUNCULUS. 49 

ANALYSIS OF EARLY BUTTERCUP. 



ORGAN. 


(Its) Life, Habit, Number, Place, Kind, Construction, Form, 
Size, Qualities of color, surface, taste, &c., and Appendages 


THE PLANT. 


n damp shades, 1 foot high. Hairy. 


Root. 


n fasciculate, fibers white, long, some of them thickened. 


Stem. 


Herbaceous, branching, caulis hollow, diffuse. 


Leaves. 


Deciduous., alternate, pinnately divided, netted, petiolate. 


Inflorescence. 


Terminal, erect, solitary, peduncle 1-6', terete. 


Flower. 


5-parted, complete, regular, V broad. 


Calyx. 


Spreading, greenish-yellow. 


Sepals. 


5, deciduous, lanceolate, distinct, imbricate. 


Corolla. 


Rosaceous, shining golden-yellow. 


Petals. 


5, deciduous, oblanceolate, scale and honey-pore at base. 


Stamens. 


30-UO, hypogynous, with slender filaments. 


Anthers. 


Oblong, 2-celled, yellow, dehiscing lengthwise. 


Pistils. 


20-30, distinct, style very short or none. 


Ovary. 


Obliquely ovate, lens-shaped, green. 


Stigma. . 


Sessile, terminal, a little curved. 


Frtht. 


20-30, distinct, achenia, in a roundish head. 


Seed. 


One in each carpel or achenium. 


1 
1 
LOCALITY— Woods, Westchester, N. Y. 

CLASSIFICATION.— PHENOGAMI A , EXOGENS. 

Order.— Ranunculace^, or The Crowfoots. 

Name.— Latin, Ranunculus fascicularis. 

—English, Uarly Crowfoot. Buttercups. 



begins to flower in April, having its radical leaves nearly round, crenate-iooi\i.e^ (see 
Glossary), its petals very small, not larger than the sepals, and therefore named by 
Linnaeus, R. abortivus (as if the flower were abortive), 



50 THE BULBOUS CROWFOOT. 

and fasciculate roots, was named by Dj. Muhlenburg,* 
Ranuncidits fascicidaris. 

Scientific Terms. — Achenium. Alternate. Cauline. Fascicu- 
late. Hypogynous. Indefinite. Nectary. Oblanceolate. Obovate. 
Perennial Herb. Pinnately divided. Radical. Reticulate. Sessile. 
Simple fruit. Ternately divided. 

IX. THE BULBOUS CROWFOOT. 

Description. — In the month of May we begin to find 
other Crowfoots, especially the Bulbous, adorning the mead- 
ows and hilly pastures with their golden cups. This is a 
neat and elegant plant, more erect and silky-haired than the 
Early C. Indeed it is pre-eminently the true Buttercup. 
Let us see wherein the two kinds differ, and how they may 
be distinguished. 

Analysis. — The Soot is fibrous, being wholly composed 
of slender, white, branching fibers, springing together from 
the base of the stem. There is no central axis as if the stem 
continued downward. Such roots are inaxial, f 

The Stem enlarges at the base into a sort of bulb, rather 
a corm, which in the Autumn is round, plump and solid. J 
Thence it stands erect, about 1 foot high, dividing into 
straight branches ending in flower-stalks. 

* Rev. Henry Muhlenburg, D.D., author of a work on the Grasses, Flora Lancas- 
triensis, and other books, was in his day the pioneer American botanist, *'a Christian 
philosopher characterized by zeal and industry not more than by humility and 
unbounded liberality of sentiment towards his contemporaries." Died A. D. 1S15, 
fet. 63. 

t This term will be better understood if we compare it with an axial root, such as 
we find in the Clover or Yellow Dock, where the stem seems to continue downward, 
gradually dissolving into fibers. 

X In ancient times this bulb was called " St. Anthony's Turnip." But if that pious 
hermit ever dined on it, he must have dried it well in the sun to expel its acridity. In 
its fresh state it is pungent and emetic— properties of which medical students some- 
times make a mischievous use by persuading their companions in attendance on the 
botanical lectures to test their excellence by tasting. Tlie herbage also has acrid 
properties, which prove a defence against its enemies. Cattle avoid it, so that it 
stands and blooms mimolested even in closely croppsd pastures. 



RANUNCULUS BULBOSUS. 



51 




Fig. IX.— Ranunculus bulb6sus : A, the bulb, as in autumn •, B, the bulb in 
spring ; 1, plan of the flower ; 2, a petal ; 3. achenium dissected. 



52 THE BULBOUS CROWFOOT. 

The Z^eaves are mostly radical, long-petioled, ter 
nately divided, with the terminal division stalked, all 
deeply 3-cleft, and lobed. The venation is plainly reticu- 
lated. 

The Flo7fe7^s are singly mounted on long, slender pe- 
duncles which are grooved or furrowed. The 5 sepals are 
reflexed — bent backward and downward.* The 5 petals 
are broad, rounded, shining and golden, forming a cup- 
shaped corolla. The honey scale at the base of each petal 
is toothed. The stamens are about 50 ; and the pistils 
(carpels) about 20, each tipped with a short, sessile, recurved 
stigma. 

The J^imii is a round head of about 20 distinct, lens- 
shaped achenia, each tipped with a short beak. 

Plan" of the Flower. — While there is only one whorl 
or circle of sepals {c) and one of petals [p), there are at 
least 5 of stamens [s) and 4 of pistils (o). The alternating 
position of all these organs, so clearly shown in the 
diagram, is obscured in the flower itself by their crowded 
condition. Why is the flower symmetrical ? Why is it 
hypogynous ? 

The Name. — This pretty specimen of Buttercup is 
appropriately named Ranunculus hulhosus (Linn.)f — the 
Bulbous Crowfoot. 

The Record. — The analysis of this plant may be recorded 
in the accompanying blank tablet, or in one of similar 

* It is noticeable that the green sepals of the Calyx, having acted as nurses and 
protectors to the petals of the flower buds, are reflected or fall off almost immediately- 
after the flower opens, as if they were anxious not to interfei-e with the success of 
the floral functions by concealing the bright petals from the iusect eye. 

t Of the genus Ranunculus there are 50 species in N. America, and at least 200 in 
the World. Their prevailing color is yellow, but some are white, as the beautiful 
R. aconitifolius of the Alps, and the gardens. Another, the splendid R. Asiaticus, Is 
either yellow or crimson on the hills of Palestine. This is the GTiflen Ranunculus 
which sports into innumerable varieties of color, with single or double flowers as 
larere as a Rose. 



RANUNCULUS BULBOSUS. 



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54 THE LIVERLEAF. 

construction. The letters following the name of the organ 
are the initials of topics at the head of the tablet. 

Scientific Terms. — ^Axial root. Inaxial root. Reflexed. 

X. THE LIVERLEAF. 

Description! — In the rich, black mould of the rocky 
woods, low among the dead leaves where a snowbank lately 
lingered, peeps up the blue Liverleaf to herald, with the 
Bluebird, the advent of Spring. Nothing is visible but its 
leaves and flowers. When lifted from its bed entire and its 
roots rinsed clear of soil, the plant may be placed in a glass 
of water, and examined at leisure. 

Analysis. — The 2ioot is inaxial like that of Ranun- 
culus, consisting wholly of long branching fibers. 

The Ste77i is a shapeless body — ^the solid basis of the plant 
under ground, whence spring the roots downward, and the 
leaf and flower stalks upward. Such a stem is called the 
croivn, and the plant is said to be acaulescent (stemless), for 
it has no proper stem. Plants with ordinary stems bearing 
the leaves and flowers, like the Crowfoots, are said to be 
caulescent. 

The Jjeaves are of two ages, some of the last year's 
growth, and some just arisen. All are supported on long, 
hairy stalks or petioles which arise from the ground, appar- 
ently from the roots ; hence they are radical and petiolate. 
The blade is firm and leathery in texture, that is, coriaceous, 
and is fashioned into 3 entire lobes {trilolate). In the por- 
trait (Fig. X) the lobes of the leaves are oMuse at the apex. 
Is it so in your specimen? 

The YENATioi^ of the blade is hand-shaped or palmate. 
From the end of the petiole in the base of the blade, 3 pri- 
mary veins diverge, one through each lobe to its apex. 



HEPATICA. 



65 




Fig. X. — Hepatica (or Anemone) triloba : 1, a stamen seen in front ; 2, — in rear ; 
3, a pistil or carpel ; 4, 5, the ovule, pendulous, anatropous ; 6, a section of tlie seed 
showing the 2-cotyledoned embryo in large albumen. 



56 THE LIVERLEAF. 

From these yems along each side proceed the veinlets, and 
from the veinlets start out the veinitlets. The latter form a 
fine network throughout, and so differ from the forked vein- 
ulets of the Ferns (p. 22). Hence this leaf is palmi-vemed 
and net-veined. Take note also of the persistence of the 
leaves. They survive tlie frosts and snoAvs of Winter until 
after the new leaves of the following Spring appear. Thus 
the plant is evergreen. 

I7ijl07^escence. The flowers are mounted each on a 
slender stalk arising from the crown with the petioles. Such 
stalks, bearing no true leaves, but flowers only, are called 
scapes. Near the top of the scape, a little below the flower, 
is a whorl of 3 little green leaves egg-shaped or ovate * in 
outline. Are these the sepals of the calyx? They are not 
so regarded, for they are remote from the flower. They are 
Irads forming an involucre {involvo, I wrap up). 

The calyx resembles a corolla. There are 6 to 9 colored, 
oblong or obovate sepals, white or delicately tinged with 
blue or purple. But why is this circlet called a calyx rather 
than a corolla? It is so named in accordance with a general 
rule that ^^ the outer whorl of the floral envelopes shall be 
regarded as the calyx whatever be its color." Hence the 
corolla is wanting in this flower, as there is no second inte- 
rior whorl, and the flower is apetalous (without petals). The 
stamens, pistils and fruit are so nearly like those of Eanun- 
culus that the student will need no repetition of the terms to 
be employed in their description. 

The Ovule (4, 5) grows out or is pendulous from the top 
of its cell. The stalk (funiculus) passes down its side to s, 
or rather say the ovule is andtropous, i. e., turnec or bent 
over on its stalk. How is it in Claytonia (p. 42)? 

* The term ovate is employed in describing flat, expanded bodies, like leaves •. ovoid 
is applicable to solids, such as the bulb. 



HEPATICA. 



57 



Classification. — The plant represented in Fig. X, as 
named in our botanies generally, is Hepatica triloia {hepar^ 
liver, triloba, 3-lobed). The early Linnsean name (probably 
the true one), was Anemone Hepatica. Our specimens may 
be of the other species, H. acutiloba. In the former the leaf- 
lobes and bracts are oUuse ; in the latter, actcte. As we have 
seen, Hepatica is closely related to Eanunculus, especially in 



OKGAN. 


1 
Life, Habit, Number, Place, Kind, Construction, &c. | 

1 


PLANT. 


n, acaulescent herb, 3—6' high. 


Root. 


n , of many long branching fibers. 


Stem. 


Crown subterranean, perennial. {venation palmate. 


Leaves. 


Evergreen, coriaceous, trilobate, acute on radical petioles, 


Inflorescence. 


Scapes radical, 1-fiowered, pubescent. 


Flowek. 


Apetalous, with an involucre of 3 ovate bracts. 


Calyx 


Corolla-like, light blue or purple. 


Sepals. 


6—9, oblong or obovate. 


Corolla. 


Wanting. 


Petals. 


Wanting. 


Stamens. 


00, hypogynous, white, filaments slender. 


Anthers. 


Oblong, 2-celled. 


Pistils. 


00, green, hairy. 


Ovary. 


Oblong, distinct, simple. 


Stigma. 


Nearly sessile, acute, style none. 


Fruit. 


12 or more oblong achenia hairy at top. 


Seed. 


One in each carpel. 


LOCALITY —Z)/-!/ woods. (Date), April 10, 1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.-PHENOGAMIA^ EXOGENS. 

Order, EANUNCULACE^. 

Name, Hepatica acutiloba. 



58 THE RUE ANEMOKE. 

the absolute freedom or distinctness of all its organs, and the 
structure of the stamens, pistils and fruit. It must therefore 
be included in the same Tribe or Order, viz., Eanunculaceae, 
or the Crowfoots. 

Scientific Terms. — Acaulescent. Apetalous. Bracts. Caules 
cent. Coriaceous. Evergreen. Involucre. Palmi-veined. Scape 
Trilobate. Veinlets. Veins. Veinulets. 

XI. THE RUE ANEMONE. 

Description. — In April and May the woods^ while yet 
leafless, are aglow with Anemones. The species portrayed 
in Fig. XI continues long in bloom, developing its pure white 
flowers in succession until a full cluster is displayed. 

Analysis. — The Soot is similar to that of Claytonia 
(p. 39), but instead of one there are usually 2 or 3 tubers of an 
oblong form, with fibrous roots attached. As to its life or 
duration, it would seem to be perennial [U). 

The Stem — its life, habit of posture and branching, its 
form and dimensions (size) may be considered and noted by 
the student. 

The Ij eaves are compound, and will furnish the principal 
topic in this analysis. There is one radical leaf and 2 or 3 
cauline. The former is also petiolate. The petiole diyides 
at the top into 3 branches {petiohdes) and these again into 
3s — 9 in all, each bearing a leaflet. It is therefore tiuice ter- 
nate or hiternate. The cauline leaves are situated at the top 
of the stem [inv). Apparently there are 6 or 9 simple, pet- 
iolate leaves in a whorl. But the petioles are joined at the 
base into sets — 3 in each set. Hence we conclude that there 
are 2 or 3 ternate or trifoliate^ sessile leaves. The leaflets 
are all similar, oval, 3-lobed at the end. Not unfrequently 
the radical leaves are thrice 3-parted, bearing 27 leaflets. 
They then become triternate. 



THE RUE AKEMOKE. 



59 



The l7iJlor€Sce7ice is terminaL The leaves around it 
may be regarded as forming its involucre. Several pedicels, 

each bearing a flower, 
arise from a common 
point in the midst of 
the leaves. Such an 
arrangement is called 
an umbel {umhella, a 
little shadow), and 
the pedicels are the 
rays of the umbel. 

The Flowers re- 
peat the apetalous 
habit of Hepatica. 
There is a single 
whorl of envelopes — 
the calyx, composed 
of 5 to 10 distinct, 
elliptical sepals of 
dazzling white. There 
is a crowd of stamens, 
with side-opening an- 
thers, perfectly dis- 
tinct and free; and in 
their midst appear 
the 6-10 distinct pis- 
tils. The close ob- 
„ _ , , server will miss the 

Fig. XI. — Anemone thahctroides : 1, a stamen ; 

2, section of flower ; 3, fruit. uectarics. * Neither 




* The RanuDCulaceae offer very remarkable differences in the manner of their 
adaptation to insects. Honey is secreted by the petals in Ranunculns, Hellebore, 
Larkspur and Columbine ; by the sepals in certain Paeonies, by the stamens in Pulsa- 
tilla, and by the ovaries in Cowslip, while it is entirely absent in Anemone, Hepatica, 
and Thalictrum. The flower is made conspicuous by the corolla in Ranunculus, by 
the calyx in Anemone, by both in Larkspur, and by the stamens in Thalictrum. The 



t)0 ANEMONE. 

honey scales, nor glands, nor spurs are to be found in this 
flower, which is regular^ apetaloiis, polyandrous, and 
hypogynous. 

The _F7^zcit. After the sepals and stamens have perished, 
the green pistils still persist and ripen into a head of distinct 
achenia which are singularly grooved and fluted. 



XII. THE WOOD ANEMONE. 

^''Tke coy AneviojT^ that ne'er uncloses 
Her lips until they' re blown on by the WzndV 

Description. — The Wind Flower, as it is frequently 
called, abounds in hilly woods and often in company with 
the Eue Anemone. It is a smaller plant, always one-flow- 
ered, and about 5' high while the latter may be 9'. 

Analysis. — In the !Soot^Q have a new feature. It is a 
slender creeper, a little fleshy, growing just beneath the 
surface of the soil. It is called the root-stock, or more 
accurately the rJiizome. From its joints fibers grow down- 
ward and stems upward. 

The Ste77t, slender but firm and erect, bears at the top 
3 compound leaves forming, as it were, an involucre around 
the one large flower. There is often, also, a radical leaf of 
the same form. All are petiolate, palmately compound, and 
their 3 (rarely 5) leaflets wedge-shaped [ciineate) at the base, 
cut into lobes and teeth above. They are acrid to the taste 
like the herbage of the Buttercup. Sheep and goats will eat 
them, however, while they are refused by cattle and swine. 

honey is easily accessible in Ranunculus to all kinds of insects, yet the flower can 
dispense with their services and fertilize itself ; while in Larkspur, where insect aid 
is indispensable, the honey is stowed away in the end of deep spurs, and accessible 
to bees only. The stigmas are not matured until after their own stamens have shed 
their pollen ; then they put themselves in the way of the bees, to be dusted with pol- 
len from other flowers. 



ANEMOJ^E. 



61 



The l77jlo7^esce7ice is solitary. The one large flower 
is near of kin to the foregoing. It is apetalous. Its 4 — 7 
sepals are oval in out- 
line, white and more or 
less tinged with pur- 
ple. The stamens and 
pistils will also be iden- 
tified and defined by 
the student. "Why are 
they indefinite? Which 
hypogynous ? 

The J^ruit. Is it 
compound, or simple ? 
Of what kind? How 
many seeds in each 
little fruit or carpel? 

The KTame.— ^^z6- 
mdne,^ the generic ti- 
tle, comes from the Gr. 
animos, wind. It was 
adopted by Linnaeus 
from the idea then 
prevalent that its flow- 
ers open only when the 
wind is blowing. The 
specific name of the 
Kue Anemone is A. thalidroldes, so called for its resem- 
blance to Thalictrum, the Meadow Eue.f Of the Wood 




Fig. Xn.— Anem6ne nemorosa : 1, a head 
of ripe carpels ; 2, a single carpel— achenium. 



* So accented according to the Latin prosody; but as an English word it is 
Anemone. 

t This plant has long hung trembling between the two genera Anemone and Tha- 
lictrum. Its involucre and flowers are those of Anemone ; its leaflets and achenia like 
those of Thalictrum. Linngeus named it as above. Michaux called it Thalictmm 
anemonoides. 



62 THE WOOD ANEMONE, 

Anemone^ A. nemordsa {nemus^ a grove) is the specific 
name. * 

In the Meadow Kue, the minute sepals fall off as soon as 
the flower opens. But the stamens are enlarged and their 
anthers yellow. Thus a little floral economy does away with 
the necessity of the usual attractive floral envelopes. 

Classification. — The next inquiry is, To what order do 
the Anemones and Hepaticas belong ? With stamens poly- 
androus, hypogynous^ and pistils distinct, forming simple, 
unconnected fruits, they agree with the Crowfoots, and their 
order is Ranunculace^. 

The Order of the Crowfoots (Eanunculaceae) embraces 
in all about 55 genera and 1100 species. From the fore- 
going and other examples, we deduce the following brief for- 
mula of its character: 

1. Plants with a colorless, acrid juice. 

2. Leaves reticulate-veined, never peltate. 

3. Flowers with their, members all free and distinct, 
4 Sepals, or petals, 3 — 15, equal or unequal. 

5. Stamens indefinite, hjpogynous. 

6. Pistils few or many, distinct, oblique. 

7. Fruit a few or many achenia, pods, or berries. 

The Crowfoots delight in cool, damp climates. Their 
juices, generally acrid, are strong enough in some Butter- 



* The genns Anemone is large and interesting; Sixty kinds inhabit the ISl Teii- 
perate Zone in both Continents. In the United States, from Sea to Sea, some 2G 
species flourish. The Basque Flower^ Nuttall's Pulsatilla, in Illinois and the North- 
west, is the most curious of them all. Its bluish blossoms, as large as a Rose, open in 
3arly April; after them the leaves, cut inco many slender segments and clothed with 
iong silky hairs, spread themselves, while the ripened achenia, fledged with feathery 
tails, take flight on the wind to new and distant homes. It derives its name from the 
fact tbat it was formerly the custom in England to use this, as well as other wild flow 
ers in staining Eggs for Easter-gifts, called Pasqve Eggs. 

Many grades and styles of beauty are represented in this genus, from the humxble 
Wood Anemone upward, culminating in the Soyal Anemone of Palestine (A. coron^- 
ria), one of the " Lilies of the field " arrayed in more than Solomon's glory. Its leavers 
are delicately cut and fringed, and its flowers, broad as the hand, shine in Tyriap 
pua>ie. 



AKEMONE. 



63 



a:n"alysis of an anemone. 



ORGAN. 


1 
Zife, ^abit, iViimber, Place, /dehiscence, ifind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm,Placentation, >Size, ^ualities^ Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


2f , hei'b 6-10' high^ generally smooth. 


Root, L.K. 


2f , oblong starchy tubers withjlbers attached. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


Annual, an erects simple, terete caulis. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


1 radical, biternate, 2 cauline, ternate, sesnle, Ifts. 3-lobed. 


Inflorescence, P.KA. 


Terminal, umbellate, involucrate. 


Flower, N.C. 


3-7, regular, apetalous, hypogynous. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Rose-form, petaloid, white. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Deciduous, 5-10, spreading, elliptical, imbricated. 


Corolla. F.Q. 


None, 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


None, 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


Qs, hypogyrwus, distinct, filament club-shaped {davate). 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Oval, 2-lobed, opening laterally, innate. 


Style, N.C.F. 


None, or very short. 


Stigma, N.F. 


1 
6-10^ sessile, simple. 


1 Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


1 
Distinct, simple, oblong, with 1 suspended ovule, i 

1 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


Achenia 6-10, smooth, fluted, ovoid. 


Seed, N.C.F.QA. 


1 in each carpel, albuminous, e7nb. 2-lobed, 







LOCALITY.— T7ooc?5, Worcester, Mass-. (Date), May 3, 1870. 
CLASSIFICATION— PHEXOG AMI A 5 EXOGENS. 
Order.— Ra^unculace^, or the Crowfoots. 

Na3ie.— Latin, Anemone tlialictroides* 

—English, Rue Anemone. 
Remarks.— 7%e cauline leaves serve as an invol'itcre. 



64 THE BLOODROOT. 

cups to blister the skin, and become actively medicinal and 
poisonous in Aconite and Hellebore. Thcr flowers are gen- 
erally ornamental, of various styles of beauty in ClematiS; 
Adonis, Eanunculus, Anemone, Columbine, Larkspur, 
Monk's-hood, and culminating in the splendid Paeony. 

The Record. — Let the student now enter in the tablets 
of the Plant Record, or such as he may himself prepare, the 
analysis of the Anemonies. In doing it, the presence of the 
plant itself is indispensable, together with the foregoing 
instructions, and also a frequent reference to the Illustrated 
Glossary. 

Scientific Terms (defined in XI and XII).— Biternate. Compound 
leaves. Cuneate. Generic. Leaflet. Palmate, Petiolule. Rays. 
Rhizome. Specific. Ternate. Trifoliate. Triternate. Umbel. 



XIII. THE BLOODROOT. 

Description. — Some sunny morning in Spring, in 
woody yales along the banks of a purling brook, or the 
track of a hidden streamlet, we may surprise in bloom the 
bright, frail flowers of the Bloodroot. The plant is remark- 
ably simple in its portrait, smooth and glaucous in surface. 

Analysis. — The ^ooi consists of fibers and fibrils only, 
for we must consider that thick, fleshy body (rA), although 
underground, 

The Stem ; there is no other. It is a true rhizome or 
root-stock, growing horizontally, filled and reeking with a 
blood-red, acrid, medicinal juice.* From its joints or off- 



* In lifting this plant from its bed. one is forcibly reminded of the sad experience 
of JSneas at the grave of Polydore (^neid, Book III). 

I pulled a plant— with horror I relate 
A prodigy so strange, and full of fate 1 
The rooted fibers rose, and from the wound 
Black bloody drous distilled upon the grouncL 



SAiiGUINARlA. 



65 




Fig. Xm.— Sangain^ria Canadensis*: 1, 2, stamens; 3, the pistil ; 4, pistil dis- 
sected ; 5, an ovule anatropous ; 6, the capsule opening ; 7, seed ; 8, seed dissected, 
both crested ; 9, the embryo. 

* Generic names are nouns, and should always begin with a Capital. Specific 
names are generally adjectives, and should never begin with a capital except when 
derived from (1) a country, or (2) a person, or (3) when they are nouns ; as (1) San- 
guinaria Canadensis, (2) Osmunda Claytoniana, (3) Papaver Mheas. 



66 THE BLOODROOT. 

sets here and there, a bud issues and sends up a leaf and a 
flower — the whole visible plant. The term acaulesceiit is 
applicable to the Bloodroot as y/ell as to Hepatica, it being 
apparently stemless. 

The J^eaf comes up from the ground tenderly embracing 
the flower-bud like a cloak. In the bud both together were 
enveloped in the membranous scales {sc) which now surround 
the base of the stalks. The rounded blade is conspicuously 
palmi-veined and netted, its margin lobed, with rounded 
sinuses between the lobes, and its base cordate (heart-shaped) 
with a deep recess. 

The Flower loses its two green caducous sepals as soon 
as it opens. The pure-white petals, open only in the sun- 
shine, are soon deciduous. The 4 interior are shorter than 
the 4 exterior, giving the expanded corolla the form of a 
square. The stamens, about 24 in number, are hypogynous. 

The Frtiii^ A pistil evidently composed of 3 united 
carpels, having a double, sessile stigma (3, 4) occupies the 
center of the flower. It becomes in fruit an oblong capsule 
with a single cell. Two lines run lengthwise on opposite 
sides of the ovary or pod (3) marking the conjoined edges of 
the carpels. "We will call these the sutures {sutura, a seam). 
Within the cell are two corresponding lines or ridges to which 
the seeds are attached ; term these the placentce ; and being 
located on the wall (paries) of the cell, parietal placentm,^ 
It contains many seeds, and finally opens by 2 equal valves 
which break away from the placentas and leave them still in 
place (6). See how the ovule (5) is bent over and adhering 
to its stalk [andtropous), ISTotice in the seed (7) its promi- 
nent and singular crest {c) and the 2-lobed {dicotyledonous) 
embryo (8, 9) in the end of the large albumen. 

* Observe that in EiTtbronium the placontse are central. 



SAKGtTINAEIA* 



67 



The Name. — This genus is appropriately named San- 
guindria {sanguis, blood); and as Linnaeus obtained his first' 
specimen from Canada, he made its specific name 8. Cana- 
densis. It is the only species yet known. 

Classification. — We find in this plant a new combina» 
tion of characters — a colored juice^ a fioioer 2 or 4-parted, a 

Al!^ALYSIS OF BLOODEOOT. 



ORGAN, 


Life, Habit, Number, Place, Dehiscence, Kind, &c. 


PLANT. 


2f , acaulescenty 6^10' high, smooth, glaucous. 


Root. 


Fibrous, growing from the thick root-stock. 


Stem. 


A rhizome, horizontal, full of a red acrid juice. 


Leaves. 


Solitary, radical, palmately 7—9-lobed, petiolate. 


Inflorescence. 


Solitary, radical, bud infolded by the leaf. 


Floweb. 


One^ on a scape, whitt, perfect, cow,plete. 


Calyx. 


Oreen^ very smooth. 


Sepals. 


Caducous^ 2, imbricate in bud. 


Corolla. 


Square in outline, white, double. 


Petals. 


3, in 2 rows, oblanceolate, wide-spread. 


Stamens. 


2U, hypogyncms, with slender filaments. 


Anther. 


Innate, oblong, yellow. 


Pistil. 1 Dmble, of 2 carpels, green. 


Stigmas. | ^, sessile or style very short. 


Ovary. | Tapering at both ends, ovules in 2 rows. 


Fkuit. 1 Capsule turgid^ V long, 1-celled, 2-valved. 


Seeds. qo , round, crested on one side, reddish brown. 


LOCALITY— Damp woody vales. (Date), April 10, 1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.-PHENOGAMIA, POLYPETALOUS EXOGENS. 
Order, Papaverace^ Popfyworts. 
Name. — Latin, ^anarninaria Caniideusis. 



68 THE POPPY. 

caducous calyx, numerous Tiypogynous stamens, and a com- 
2J0und I'Celled capsule. Let these be remembered as the 
marks of the Order^ which will be named in the next lesson. 
The Record (on page 67) should be used by the learner 
not to copy^ but for comparison with his own^ previously 
and independently sketched ; also as a guide in the record 
of the Poppy and other similar plants. 



XIV. THE POPPY. 

Description. — Toward the end of May some of the Pop- 
pies may be found in bloom in gardens and fields. Their 
graceful form attracts the eye^ while the richness of their 
scarlet tint harmonizes with the green verdure around. Their 
own verdure is sea-green, somewhat hairy, and like the 
Bloodroot, contains a colored juice— white instead of red. 
The Poppy never springs from the last year's root, but from 
the seed alone, flowering, fruiting, and perishing, all in one 
season. It is therefore an annual herb (often thus denoted ® ). 
The Bloodroot with its ever-growing rhizome is necessarily 
perennial (21!). 

Analysis* — The root is axial (p. 50) — a tap-root growing 
from the seed downward, branching, tapering. 

The Stem stands firmly erect, terete, somewhat branch- 
ing, and with bristly spreading hairs. 

The Ijeaves are cauline, sessile, pinni-veined, and oblong 
in general outline, with the margin more or less lobed, or 
divided into segments {pinnatifid). 

The J^2o74^e?^s are few and large, each supported on a 
stout peduncle, nodding in the bud (5), finally erect. The 



* These notes apply only to the natural, single, or simple-^ov^are^ Poppy. Should 
the specimens have double fiovrers, they will open a new field of inquiry, for which 
see the lesson on the Rose (XXVIII). 



PAPAVEB, 



69 




Fie. XIV.— Paoaver Rheas : 1, the fruit. 



70 THE POPPY. 

calyx is like that of Sanguinaria. The corolla (white or 
red) consists of 4 broad petals, thin and fragile, crumpled 
in the bud and opening convulsiyely. * The stamens are as 
in Sanguinaria, but more numerous. There is but one pis- 
til, a large, turgid, green ovary capped by a broad, sessile 
stigma, with no style. The rays marking the top of the 
stigma, indicate so many simple stigmas and carpels united 
into this one compound pistil. 

The Frtcit is a capsule, 1-celled, crowned with the broad, 
persistent stigma. It opens by as many little Yalves under 
the margin of the stigma as it has rays— one to each carpel, 
for the escape of the seeds. These are exceedingly small 
and numerous. Linnaeus counted 10,000 in a single 
capsule. 

The Name of the Poppy family is the ancient Eoman 
one, Papaver. It is said to come from papa, the Celtic 
word for pap, because its capsules were formerly given to 
infants with their food as a soporific. Among the 30 species 
of the Poppy, red is the prevailing color. Three kinds, at 
least;, with large, brilliant scarlet or crimson petals frequent 
our gardens and fields. One of these, P, Rlieas, the Corn 
Poppy, is portrayed in Fig. XIV. f Another species, the 
Opium Poppy, has white flowers. It is appropriately 
named P, somniferuin {somnus, sleep, fero, I bear). 

The Order or tribe of the Poppyworts— PAPAYEEACEiE, 

* These petals are so delicate that even when we cut them with scissors it i^ 
almost impossible to keep them from crumpling. But the Poppy bee having dug a 
hole three inches deep in the ground and smoothed and polished the sides, hangs the 
walls of its little home with tapestry, using these Poppy petals, which it employs 
with so much skill that they are smooth as glass. 

t The Ancients believed that the presence of the Com Poppy in their fields was 
necessary io the prosperity of the Corn (Wheat) ; hence the seeds were among the 
sacred offerings to Ceres, and her garlands were composed of Wheat-stalks with their 
bearded heads intertwined with Red Poppies. " The term rheas," says William Tur- 
ner, who wrote in 1551, "is given because the flower fallith awaie hastilie.'' This 
Poppy is so abundant in England that it is dreaded by the farmers as a pestiferous 
weed. 



VIOLA. Tl 

includes 24 genera and 290 species, chiefly natives of the N. 
Temperate Zone, briefly characterized as follows : 

Herbs with colored or milky juice. 

Flowers 2 or 4-partecl, poljandrous, hypogynous. 

Sepals fugacious. 

Ovary compound, 1-celled. 

Fruit a dry pod, with parietal placentas. 

The PoPPYWORTS all possess narcotic properties in their juice, but 
not in their seeds. The milky white juice of the Opium Poppy, when 
extracted and dried, becomes the opium of commerce.* 

The California Poppy {Eschscholtzia), a showy garden annual, is so 
abundant on the hillsides of California as to paint them with its own 
yellow-orange color visible far out on the Sea. 

The Celandine {Gheliddnium majus), from Europe, grows in road- 
sides and waste places. Its saffron -colored juice is said, when faith- 
fully applied, to kill warts. 

Scientific Terms. — Annual herb. Caducous. Crest. Dicotyle- 
donous. Glaucous. Placentae central. Placentae parietal. Rhizome. 
Sinus. Sutures. Tap-root. 

XV. THE VIOLETS. 

Description. — Who does not know and. love the Vio- 
lets ? Early or late in spring, in all our rambles, they greet 
us with their qnaint and cheerful faces — the yellow in the 
rocky woods^ the white in boggy swamps, and the blue 
everywhere, f With specimens in profusion, let us first 

* The narcotic properties of tlie Poppy must hare been early known, for in ancient 
Greece the god of sleep was figured as reclining on a bed of its snowy blossoms, and 
grasping them in his motionless hand. In the East the Poppy attains a greater lux- 
uriance, and its white juice is more abundant than in our colder climate. The pro- 
cess of collecting the opium to-day is the same as described hj Dioscorides many 
centuries ago. At sunset incisions are made in the half -ripened capsules. Luring 
tlie night the juice exudes and collects in globules outside. The next morning these 
are scrapel o2., thickened in the sun, and shaped by the hand into balls. The seeds 
are not injured by the flow of the juice, and make a second har^^est. They contain 
no opium, but are rich m oil, which, as an article of diet, is nearly as good as the 
on of Olives. 

+ History tells us how in all a'jes the Violet has been prized. Athens honored it 
with the first place in floral wieachs An ancient poet speaks of ''living in Violet- 



n 



THE VIOLETS. 




Fig. XV.— Viola cucull^ta : 1, the corolla displayed ; 2, the odd petal ; 3, the sta- 
mens, &c. ; 4, the ovary and style ; 5, section of a seed ; 6, section of a flower of V. 
rotundifolia ; 7, section of ovary ; 8, the capsnle wide open, the valves covered with 



crowned Athens." The Komans had their "Dies Violaris,"— the day devoted to 
decking the graves with flowers. An old English herbalist says, " Verie manie of 
these violets receive ornament and comelie grace, for there be made of them gar- 
lands for the head, nosegaies and posies, which stirre up a man to that which is 

comely and honest." Who cannot respond to these lines of Willis : 

"There is to me 
A daintiness about these early flowers 
That touches me like poetry. They bloom 
With such a simple loveliness among 
The common herbs of pasture, and breathe out 
Their loves so unobtrusively, like hearts 
Whose beatings are too gentle for this world." 



VIOLA. 73 

examine the blue. Like Hepatica, this Violet is a peren- 
nial, acaulescent herb. According to ics locality, it is 
smooth {glabrous) or hairy, the latter in poorer soil. 

Analysis. — From what the learner has already seen, he 
will easily characterize the root, stem, and scapes. But in 
the leaf and flower several new features will appear. 

The I^eaves are borne on long petioles, springing from 
the underground stem, and each petiole is embraced at its 
base by a pair of narrow linear scales. The nature of these 
appendages will be better understood hereafter (p. 75). 
The blade is rolled inward at the base, so as to imitate the 
form of a hood (ciicullus) ; hence the leaf is ciicidlate. 
When spread out, as in dried specimens, the blade is as 
broad or broader than long. A sinus or recess at the base, 
where it joins the petiole, makes it cordate (heart-shaped) or 
reniform (kidney-shaped). The margins are usually crenate 
(notched) — i. e., wrought into small rounded notches. But 
in this they greatly vary, being sometimes found diyided, 
more or less deeply, in five to nine lobes. As to venation, 
are they pinni-veined, or palmi-veined ? 

l7iJloresce7ice. — The flower-stalks or scapes are two- 
bracted about midway, and recurved at the top, so that the 
flowers are nodding, and resupinate (inverted). 

The JFlowers hitherto studied are regular ; that is, they 
have the same form and look on every side. But the 
flowers of the Violet are irregular^ being oblique or one- 
sided. This is due to the inequality of the five petals. 
They differ in shape, size, color, and posture, and are 
assorted into two pairs and an odd one — the upper (lower 
by resupination), which is protruded behind into a blunt 
sack or spur (2). All are blue, with a yellow and pencilled 
base, and the lateral ones are broadest and bearded. The 
five green sepals are each extended behind into an ear- 



74 



THE GARDEN VIOLETS. 



shaped lobe ; that is^ they are auric ulate {auricula, a little 
ear). The five stamens are oddly constructed (3). Hitherto 
we have seen the anther as in the Crowfoots, innate, i. e., 
borne on the top of the filament ; but here it is adnate, 
i. e., attached to the. side of the filament below the top. 
Then two of the filaments project a little spur into the spur 
of the odd petal ! 

The ^7^uii. The club-shaped style bears an oblique, 
hood-shaped stigma. The 1-celled ovary ripens into a 
1 -celled, 3-valved capsule with three parietal placentae. 
(See page ^k),) When the valves open they display each a 
placenta along its middle covered with seeds. Why is the 

seed (5) anatropous ? Why dico- 
tyledonous? What is the ratio of 
the albumen and the embryo ? 

Cleistof/e7ie F' towers . — The 
early flowers just described seem 
to be intended chiefly for display, 
as they often prove infertile. Later 
in the season the plant produces 
flowers on very short scapes, hid- 
den beneath the leaves, or even in 
the soil, destitute of petals, but 
always fertile (See (9), where ^ is a 
flower, b a fruit). Such flowers are cleistogene (never open), 
and it is remarkable that their anthers produce but few 
grains of pollen, barely one to each ovule.* 




9, Cleistogene flowers of 
V. cucullata. 



* Here is illustrated the economy of Nature, at one time lavish, at another frngnl, 
but always for a reason. When the pollen is to be carried by chance insects, or per- 
haps by the wind to distant flowers, an immense amount must reeds be wasted. But 
when it is confined in the closed flower, a very little answers the purpose. In this 
case there is no need of insect help, and consequently the flowers have no tall stem 
to push them out into notice, no fragrance, no color, no honey, and indeed no petals. 
Yet they often bear more seeds than the so-calle:l flowers. There is something 
almost human in the self-sacrifice of these flowers to sheer duty. 



TIOLA, 



78 



XVI. THE GARDEN VIOLET. 

Description. — That the Garden Violet has long been a 
general favorite is shown by the variety of names it bears, 
such as Pansy (Fr. pensee, thought), Tricolor, Heartsease, 
Lady^s-delight. We find it not only in gardens, but grow- 
ing wild in fields and woods.* 

Analysis. — The Soot growing downward, branches 
into innumerable thread-like fibers, which are annually 
renewed, while as a whole it is perennial. 

The Sie7n arises above ground 6-12', is angular, gen- 
erally glabrous, with the branches curved upward, leafy 
throughout. 

The Z/eaves are pinni-vemed, ovate or oval, crenate, 
obtuse, and the petiole bears at its base a pair of conspicu- 
ous appendages, much larger than those in the Blue Violet 





Fig. XVI.— Viola tricolor : 2, a leaf and stipules displayed. 

(p. 71), although of the same nature. These are called 
stipules, an organ which distinguishes all the Violets, and 
many other families ; also some whole tribes, as the Eose- 



* We once (A. D. 1866) crossed a broad plain in central Oregon literally covered 
with wild Pansies. 



76 



THE GARDEN VIOLET. 



AN"ALYSIS OF A VIOLET. 



OEGAN. 


Life, Habit, Number, Place, Dehiscence, Kind, &c. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


U herb acaidescent, 6-12^. smooth. 


Root, L.K. 


U an axis or root-stock branching into fibers. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


A subterranean crown or rhizome. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


O on long, radical petioles, cucullate, coi'date, palmi-veined, 
crenate, stipulate. 


Inflorescfence, P.K.A. 


Scapes each 1-Jlowered, with 2 bracts. 


Floww, N.C.R 


Perfect, complete., nodding, some apetalous. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Irregular, green. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Persistent, 5, lance-ovate, auriculate. 


Carolla, F.Q. 


Irregular, chiefly violet-blue. 


Petals, L.N.P.P. 


Decidwus, 5, imbncated, 2-bearded, 1-spurred. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


5, hypogynous, with shan't broad filaments. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Adnate, introrse. 


Style, N.C.F. 


1, oblique, club-shaped. 


Stigma, N.F. 


1, turned to one side, with a beak. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


Triple, ovoid, 1-celled, parietal. 


Fmit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


1, open by 3 valves, capsule, ovoid, smooth. 


Seed,N.C.F.Q.A. 


Oo, anatropous, ovoid, brown, appendaged. 


LOCAIATY.-Fiel 

CLASSIFICATIO: 

Order, Vio 

1 Name.— Latin 

1 — Engli 


ds, meadows. (Date), April 20, 1877. 
ST.^PHENOGAMIA, POLYPETALOUS EXOGENS. 

LACE^. 

Viola cucullata. 

?h, Hood-leaved Violet 



worts. Stipules always appear in pairs and attached to the 
base of the petiole. In shape they are as various as the 
leaves. Those of the Pansy are cleft into several segments, 
of which the terminal is the largest — a form called lyrate, 



VIOLA. 77 

or lyrate-pinnatifid. Contrast these with the stipules of the 
Blue Violet. 

The J^/o}^e?^s^ in their garden dress^ are a perpetual 
charm, s23orting into varieties infinite, yet always with 
^ ^method in their madness." In their wild or ordinary state, 
they are definitely tri-colored,* with one petal yellow, two 
white, and two of that peculiar deep rich purple known as 
violet, one of the tints of the rainbow. By cultivation the 
petals may be enlarged tenfold, and their three native 
colors strangely mixed and confounded. Comparing this 
flower with the Blue Violet, why is it resupinate ? Why 
irregular ? Which petal is spurred, the lower or upper ? 
Which are violet-colored ? Why are the sepals auricu- 
late ? Which stamens are spurred ? Why are the anthers 
adnate ? Being caulescent, this Violet develops no deist o- 
gene flowers. 

The Name. — Viola, the ancient Latin name of these 
plants,f is adopted in modern science as that of the genus. 
It includes 150 species. The Blue Violet is F. ciicuUata; the 
Pansy, F. tricolor — both names suggestive of their leading 
characteristics. The Violets of S. America are shrubs. 

The Order Violace^, the Violetworts, includes the 
genus Viola, and 2i kindred genera, one of which, Solea, 
grows in the woods of Xew York, westward and southward. 

Many of the Violets, especially tliose of S. America, possess valua- 
ble medicinal properties. lonidium Itubu, called Poaya in Peru, is 

* It is worthy of notice that when all the petals of a flower are eqnal in size and 
shape, they are also equally colored and streaked ; but as soon as one petal is enlarged 
for any special purpose, a change of color or adornment generally ensues. Thus in 
the Violets, especially in the Pansy, the lower petal forms an alighting place for the 
insect, and is more brightly colored than the rest of the flower— a door-step whence 
the color lines lead directly to the honey trove within, and in getting it the bee ia 
sure to be dusted with the pollen. 

t In ancient fable, lo, the da'ighter of Atlas, fleeing from Apollo, escaped to the 
woods, where, by the power of Diana, she was changed into a Violet, which even now 
modestly avoids the gaze of Phoebus by hiding her face in her own leaves. 



78 CHICKWEED. 

one of tlie sources of Ipecac. Our native V. ovata is a reputed remedy 
for the bite of the Rattlesnake. The common Sweet Violet of the con- 
servatories (V. odorata), the Ion of the Greeks, is famed for its fra- 
grance. Its root is purgative, and employed in making the Syrup of 
Violets. The blue infusion of its flowers is employed by the French 
in numerous confections, and it also furnishes a chemical test, turning 
green with an alkali and red with an acid. 

Scientific Terms. — Adnate anther. Cleistogene flower. Cordate. 
Crenate. Cucullate. Irregular flower. Innate anther. Lyrate. Ly- 
rate-pinnatifid. Reniform. Regular. Spur. Stipules. Auriculate, 



XVII. CHICKWEED, 

History. — We have before us a plant, humble in appear- 
ance, but of noble lineage and truly cosmopolitan. It is a 
common weed everywhere north of Mexico, and is abundant 
in Europe, whence it is supposed to have emigrated hither. 
It delights in cool, shady places on cultivated ground, and 
blossoms from the beginning of Spring to the end of 
Autumn. 

Analysis. — The Leap EEGiOi^. — The root is annual 
and fibrous. The stem is slender and weak^ and therefore 
prostrate or but half erect, nearly 1 foot long, with distinct 
nodes (joints), and terete internodes (p. 85), which are singu- 
larly diotinguished by a hairy line which changes sides at 
each joint. Its branches are like forks — dicli6tomous> The 
leaves are ovate, smooth, entire, two at each node and oppo- 
site, 1' in length5 mostly petiolate.* 

The l7iJloresce7ice proceeds in the following order : 
1st, the stem early terminates in a flower ; 2d, a pair of 
branches arises from the axils of the upper pair of leaves 

* It is curious to note hou , as the chill of night comes on, the leaves fold together 
in pairs, enclosing the tender germ of the young shoot at the axil ; v.hlle the upper 
pair but one is larger than the others and covers over the last pair, so securing the 
end of the branch. 



STELLA RIA. 



79 



and each terminates in a flower, leaving the first flower in 
the fork ; 3d, the same process is repeated in each of these 
branches, the 2 secondary flowers being left below, each in 
a fork like the first, and so on to the last. Thus the central 
fiower is the oldest, and the infiorescence is centrifugal. 

The Flower may always be seen when the sun is shin- 
ing, looking like a little star among the green leaves. It is 
regular, perfect, 5-parted, pedunculate. The green, hairy 




Fig. XVII. — StellMa 
m^dia : 1, a flower; 2, 
calyx with fruit ; 3, sec- 
tion of a flower ; 6, sta- 
mens and pistil ; 5, seeds 
heaped on the placenta ; 
4, section of a seed. 



calyx is larger than the white corolla. The sepals are lance- 
olate and quite distinct from one another. The petals are 
each deeply 2-cleft (hifid), so as to appear as if there were 
1 0. The ovary is ovoid, surmounted by 3 sessile stigmas, 
and surrounded by the stamens, which are normally 10, each 
standing on a honey gland. But these little flowers assume 
large liberty ; often, nay generally, their stamens are reduced 



80 THE PIXK. 

to D, 4, or even 3.* Also late in the season they omit their 
petals, or develop some mere rudiments only. 

The ^7ncit conies to be a capsule with 1 cell opening by 
6 valves (or 3 split valves). The placenta stands in the 
center {^ free-central)^ covered with seeds which have a black, 
sculptured coat {testa), and a curved embryo around mealy 
albumen. (See Fig. XVII, 4.) 

The Scientific Wame of Ohickweed is Stelldria mhdia, 
the former in allusion to the silvery stars {stella, a star) of 
its blossoms, and the latter to its abundance (media, com- 
mon). The chickadee and the chickens are fond of the 
plump seeds ; hence the name CMchweed. The genus Stel- 
laria is distinguished by having 5 bifid petals and 3 stig- 
mas. 

XVIII. THE PINK. 

Description. — The Garden Pinks and Carnations, so 
varied in form and coloring, are supposed to have descended 
from a single species known in Europe as Clove Pink, a 
native of the Southern Alps. In all its diversities it retains 
and is known by its glaucous evergreen foliage. We will 
take the common single Pink as the type. 

Analysis, — The Leaf Eegio^^ is complicated, especially 
in the older plants. A caudex (a woody, leafless, close- 
jointed stem) with its root-end dissolving into fibers, divides 
above into many prostrate, tangled branches, which become 
herbaceous and leafy at their upturned ends. Here the true 
stems (caulis) begin, with lengthened internodes between 
the tumid nodes, bearing a pair of opposite, linear, sessile, 

* The student will observe that the stamens come to maturity and shed their pol- 
len before the stigmas are ripe. This prevents self-fertilization. (See p. 82 ) The 
amount of honey secreted in these flowers must be iufiniteslmnlly small. By an 
elaborate calculation. Wilson concludes that it would require 2.500.000 florets like 
those of the White Clover to yield 1 ponnd of honey ! This give*; some '-leT of the 
industry of the bee, and the amount of labor represented in every honeycc jib. 



STELLARIA. 



81 




QA 





Fig. X\T:n.— Dianthus Caryophyllus : 2, a flower, showing all the organs ; 3, the 
ovary and two styles ; 4, a petal of Silene steWhta, Jlmbriaie (fringed) and unguiculate 
(petiolate) ; 5, a petal of Cerastium, bifid. 

apparently yeinless leaves at each joint, and a terminal (cen- 
trifugal) inflorescence. 

The FLOVfER Region". — The flowers, few and large, on 
account of their peculiar grace and elegance, have been cele- 
brated in story and song from the earliest times. The green 
calyx, of 5 united sepals, as seen by their disunited ends, is 
truly a flotver-cup or vase, supported at the base by 2 or 3 
ovate bractlets. The 5 petals, arranged with consummate art, 
insert their long claws (petioles ?) within the vase, forming 
a fringed and tinted corolla. Likewise the 10 long stamens 
and 2 styles. The ovary is but one, becoming a 1-celled, 
4-valved, capsular fruit. The many black seeds with embryo 
but little curved, and mealy albumen, cover the free-central 
placenta. 



83 THE PINK. 

FERTiLiZATioiq-. — The nectar, situated in the deep narrow 
calyx, can be tasted only by the long tongue of Moths and 
Butterflies. The stamens usually appear first, issuing from 
the throat of the blossom, and after showering their pollen 
on the heads of the visiting Moths, wither away ; immedi- 
ately, the 2 long recurved styles emerge, ready to receive the 
pollen brought from the other flowers.* 

Teratology.— Carnations are Pinks made double by arti- 
ficial culture. A careful analysis reveals the curious change 
which has taken place. The petals are multiplied to about 
30. The stamens have divided themselves each into several, 
all more or less deformed, but evidently Hkewise tending 
toward the shape of a petal. The ovary may have become 
triple, with a third style, and the calyx may have burst 
open. This unruly behavior is called teratology {teras, a 
monster). See Lesson XXYIII. 

The Name is Didnthus Caryophyllus, Dianthus {Dios, 
antlios) means the Flower of Jove, or God's own flower ; and 
Caryophyllus, the Clove Tree, is applied to this species on 
account of its peculiar fragrance. The genus Dianthus is 
known by a tubular, hracted calyx, and two styles. 

Classification.— The two genera— Dianthus and Stella- 

ria, represent the Order of the Pinkworts, or Caryophyl- 

LACE^. The student will remember that they coincide in 

the following characters : 

Herbs with swollen joints and opposite, entire leaves. 

Flowers regular, symmetrical, 4 or 5-parted. 

Petals distinct, or wanting. 

Stamens twice as many as tlie sepals, or fewer. 

Ovary compound, free from the calyx. 

Embryo curved or coiled on mealy albumen. 



* Plants with this habit of promoting: cross-fertilization will be found quite numer- 
ous, and are called proferandroys (f^'om the Gr. 'protero^, earlier, andres^ stamens). 
On the other hand, other plants mature their pistils earlier than their stamens. The 
Plantain, for example, pushes out its 1 msr hairy style a day or so before its own sta- 
mens are ready, in order to receive pollen from other flowers. 



GERANIUM. 83 

The Pinkworts thus defined will include 35 genera and 1000 spe- 
cies, growing on mountains, rocks, hedges, and waste places, in tli6 
temperate and cold regions of. the World. Except for ornament they 
s?om to be of little service to Man. 

Sweet William ij)idnthus barbdtus), with flowers in dense cymes, 
and infinite variety of color, is from Europe. 

Catchfly {Silene) is noted for the mscid rings just below the joints, 
serving not only to catch little flies and gnats, but to stop the ascent 
of ants who would steal the nectar intended for the bees. 

Corn Cockle {Lychnis Githdgo) is a handsome weed growing in 
Wheat fields because its seed cannot be winnowed from the grain. 

Soapwort (Sapondria), called also Bouncing Bet, flourishes by road- 
sides. It bas large handsome flowers, and its herbage when bruised 
may be used for soap. 

Scientific Terms in Lessons XVII and XVIII : Bifid. Caudex. 
Caulis. Ditchotomous. Free central placenta. Internodes. Nodes, 
Proterandrous. Teratology. 



XIX. THE WILD GERANIUM. 

Description. — In May and June, the forests are every- 
where adorned with the large, round, pale-purple flowers of 
the Wild Geranium or Oranesbill. Beautiful in itself, it is 
invested with additional interest by its associations.* It 
stands firmly erect, 1 or 2 ft. high, clothed with whitish hairs. 

Analysis. — The ^oot. Under the soil we find a stout 
fleshy root-stock or rhizome, with many strong fibers at- 
tached, a very astringent taste, and evidently perennial. It 
is often sought by the country people as a household medi= 
cine, and sold in drug-stores, by the name of Oranesbill. 

The Siem arises in Spring, terete, jointed, and with a 
few leaves on long radical petioles. At each joint {nodus) 



* There is an Eastern tale that the GeraTiium was formerly a Mallow, but Mahomet 
having laid a garment upon it to dry. it wa^ transformed into ^lis more beautiful plant. 
A marvelous change indeed ; for the two plants are hotaaiically unlike by many grades 
of difference. 



84 



THE WILD GERANIUM. 




S 5, 

Fig. XIX.— Geranium maculatum : 1, plan of the flower ; 2, the stamens, and 
(immature) pistil ; 3, the mature pistil ; 4, section of ovary ; 5, ovule ; 6, fruit ; 7, a 
seed : 8, 9, embryo. 



GERANIUM. 85 

the stem bears a pair of opposite leaves and divides or forhs 
into branches. Botanists call the joints nodes, and the 
portion of stem intervening between the nodes, internodes. 
In Geranium the nodes are conspicuously swollen. In 
most other plants they are slightly swollen and bear but 
one leaf. 

The Ijeaves are palmi-veined, and palmately 5 or 7-lobed, 
the lobes cuneate below and cleft above. Each petiole is 
furnished with a pair of narrow, acuminate stipules at the 
base. 

The Flowers^ regular and symmetrical, are an inch 
broad and 5-parted throughout. The green sepals are 
3-veined, and awn-pointed ; the petals obovate, bearded at 
the base on the short claw {unguis)] the stamens ten (2), 
alternately a longer and a shorter one, with the anthers ver- 
satile, i. e., balanced on the tip of the filament ; the pistils 
5 cohering into one (3).* The torus is remarkable. It 
bears 5 glayids alternating with the petals, and supports a 
central column rising in the midst of the styles to their top. 
It is the cavpopliore, or fruit-bearer (6, c). 

The ^ruit (6) is a regma (fracture), so named from its 
curious behavior. The entire compound pistil persists, 
grows into a slender column (5) having the 5 ovaries at the 
base. When fully ripe, it breaks up into its 5 constituent 
carpels, and each carpel is then borne upward on its recurv- 
ing elastic style, which still remains attached to the top of 
the carpophore. In this position it is inverted, and its black 
dotted seed (7) drops out. 



* It has often been observed that the stamens of this plant nidtnre sooner than 
their pistil. When the flower first opens, the style is short and the 5 stigmas close up 
as seen in Cut 2. After the anthers have shed their pollen, then the stigmas arise 
and spread out ready, but too late to receive it. Now they must get their supply from 
other and later blossoms. Such flowers are called proterandrous (Note, p. 82). Cross- 
fertilization is evidently the end of this arrangement. 



86 THE HORSESHOE GERANItTM. 

The 3eed lias a rough shell {testa) entirely filled by the 
embryo whose 2 cotyledons are nicely folded together and 
bent over on the radicle (8, 9). There is no albumen.* 

The Plak of the flower (1) shows 6 circles, each with 
its 5 members all alternating: 1st, the sepals; 2d, the petals; 
3d, the honey glands; 4th and 5th, the stamens; 6th, the 
ovaries. 

The WTame Geranium comes from the Gr. geranos, a 
crane, because of a fancied resemblance of the fruit to the 
beak of that bird. The species in hand is G. maculat^im, or 
Spotted Cranesbill, named for the pale blotches often seen on 
its leaves. Another common species is G, Rohertidnum, the 
Herb Robert, with smaller and redder flowers.f These and 
100 other similar species have perfectly regular flowers, with 
ten perfect stamens, and the fruit a regma. 

XX. THE HORSESHOE GERANIUM. 

Description. —Let us now interrogate that popular 
house-plant, the Horseshoe Geranium (known by the brown 
ring on its rounded leaves), and learn whether it be indeed 
a Geranium, or of some other genus of this splendid Order. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Eegion. — The plant before us 
was reared from a cutting; hence its roots are artificial and 
give no proof of their native form. The stem lives and 
grows from year to year, becoming a woody branching shrub 
with a greenish bark. 

It is said that in seedlings the earlier and lower leaves are 

* In seel^ where the albumen is wanting, the seed-lobes or cotyledons become 
thick and fleshy with starchy matter, infolding the embryo for its protection while 
sleeping, feeding it with their own substance in its early growth, and finally appear- 
ing, as usu-il, a pair of leaves, t\iQ first which the plantlet unfolds. 

t The pretty flowers are roseate and penciled with purple. The leaves are more 
finely divided and cut, emitting a strong odor when handled. Late in the season they 
are subject to a parasitic fungus, appearing sprinkled with darkish specks. 



PELARGONIUM. 



87 



opposite. In our plant, however, all are alternate, with 
lung petioles and broad stipules. The blade is orbicular or 
nearly round, palmi-veined, with many shallow lobes, green, 
but liable to endless markings and shadings. 

The Flower Eegion. — The peduncles issue opposite to 
the leaves and grow much longer than they, bearing an um- 
bel of 12 or more flowers, with an involucre of 6 bracts. The 
flowers are an inch broad, 5-parted, and 
slightly irregular. Of the 5 green sepals, 
the upper one protracts its base down the 
pedicel, forming a slender tube upon it, or 
a slender spur adhering to it [s). Of the 5 
scarlet petals, the 2 upper are somewhat 
smaller than the 3 lower. Of the 10 fila- 
ments, only 7 bear efflcient anthers. The 
pistil and fruit are nearly as in the Wild 
Geranium save the twisted beaks. 

Tlie Name. — Now, with its irregular, 
spurred flowers, its 7 perfect stamens, can 
this plant be a true Geranium ? The French 
botanist, UHeritier, A. d. 1787, separated such plants, and 
formed a new genus with the analogous name, Pelargoniitm 
(Storksbill, Gr. pelargos). It now includes 170 species, all 
native in S. Africa, and many favorites alike in the conserva- 
tory and in the humble cottage window.* Ours is P, zonale. 

The Record of the analysis of Wild Geranium is to be 




XX.— Flower of 
Pelargdnium zoa^e. 



used as a monitor, not a guide. 
like those in the Plant Eecord. 



The form of the tablet is 
The letters following the 



* Another gronp of Geraiiia having regular flowers witJi only 5 good stamens and 
the avms of the carpels twisted and barbed, was geparatecl from the Liniisean genus by 
L'Heritiei- and named Erodium (Heronsbill). One of its species, E. cicutarium, 
deserves mention as a forage plant of great vakie. It is rare in the Atlantic States, 
but in California overspreads hill and plain to an immense extent. It is called 
Al-filirea. It starts from seed annua^^3^ grow? rapidly, feeds flocks and herds during 
Winter and Spring on its sweet herbage, and, in the dry Summer and Autumn, on its 
nutritious seeds left broadcast on the ground. 



88 



THE HORSESHOE GERAKIUM. 



name of the organ are the initials of the categories heading 
the page ; e. g., ^^Eoot, L. KJ' stands for Eoot, its Life and 
Kind; ^^ Leaves, L.RC.RS.Q.'^ is for Leaf or Leaves, their 
Life, Place, Construction, Form, Size, and Qualities. Pelar- 
gonium may be recorded in like manner. 

Scientific Terms.— Awn-pointed. Carpophore. Claw. Cleft. 
Glands. Internode. Node. Orbicular. Regma. 



ORGAN, (its) 



Plant, L.H.S.Q. 



Root, L.K. 



Stem, L.H.K.F. 



Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 



Xife, mbit, Aumber, Place, Dehiscence, Kind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, >6'ize, Qualities, Appendages. 



If, Herb erect, l~3ft., with whitish hairs. 



n, Hoof stock thick, with many fibers. 



O , erects brachiate, caulis-jointed, terete. 



0, opposite^ petiolafe., stipulate, palmate, 5—7-lobed. 



Inflorescence, P.K.A. 



Terminal^ cymous, centrifugal, involucre 2-leaved, 



Flower, N.C. 



5'parted, perfect, complete, regular. 



Calyx, F.Q. 



Bell-form, green, ciliate. 



Sepals, L.N.P.F. 



Persistent, 5, imbricate, bristle-tipped, oblong. 



Corolla, F.Q. 


Bosaceous, lilac-purple. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Deciduous, 5, contorted, rounded, claw bearded. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


10, hypogynous, filaments slender. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Longitudinal, 2-cdled, innate, oblong. 


Style, N.C.F. 


5 united, slender., around the carpophore. 


Stigma, N.F. \ 


5, linear, stellate. 


Ovary, C.F Pn. 


5 united carpels, separating in p^-it. 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. | 


5, breaking up, a regma, beaks curved. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 


1 in each carpel, oval, black. 


IjOCMATY.— Woods. (Date), 3Iay 3, 1877. 
CLASSIFICATI0N,-PHEXOGAMIA, POLYPETALOUS EXOGENS, 

—Order, Geraniace^. 
NAME.— Latin, Geranium niaculatum. 

—English, Spotted Cranesbill. 



OXAHS. 



89 



XXI. THE YELLOW WOOD SORREL. 

Description. — The Yellow Wood Sorrel, with clover- 
like leaves, is almost ubiquitous. It blossoms from May to 
September, in open places, from the Great Lakes to the 
Gulf, and even to the Pacific Ocean. There are other plants 




Fig. XXI.— Oxalis stricta : 1, plan of the flower; 2, vertical section of flower. 

of its kind more beautiful, but none more instructive nor 
so generally within the reach of the botanical student. 

Analysis. — The Leap Eegiox. From perennial creep- 
ers under ground, or from the seed, a slender stem arises, 
simple and erect at first, but soon branching and reclining. 



90 



YELLOW WOOD SORREL. 



The leaves are arranged alternate on the stem, compound, 
trifoUolate, consisting of a long petiole, with 3 leaflets. 
The form of these leaflets is a study. They are broad and 
notched above so as to present 2 rounded lobes at the apex 
— the cordate form inverted {c), or ohcorclate. The venation 
is also to be studied, whether the leaf be j^ctl^^^icLte-trifoliolate, 
with the leaflets all sessile alike (as if cut from a palmi- 
veined leaf), or pinnate'trifoliolate, with the terminal leaflet 




8 " // 

Oxalic stricta: 3, The urjited stamens ; 4, 5, stamens ; 6, the 5 pistils; 7,8, sections 
of the fruit; 9, seed, 10, testa, 11, naked ; 12, embryo. 

stalked as in Bulbous Crow^foot (p. 50), or better, in the gar- 
den Bean. This question let the reader decide. 

Injl07^esce7ice. — Next arises the inquiry, Where is the 
axil of the leaf ? It is analogous to the arm-pit — the inner 
angle between the petiole and the stem {ci). From this 
point issues the bud which develops into a branch, and in 
this case, at least, the peduncle which bears the umbel of 
flowers. Hence the inflorescence is axillary and iimiellate,^ 

The Flower Eegiox. — The flowers of Sorrel, like those 

* Not truly umbellate, however, as it becomes a ci/me when the flowers are more 

than 3 



OXALIS. 91 

of Geranium, are 5-parted throughout ; sepals 5, petals .5, 
stamens 2x5, and pistils 5, with their styles distinct and 
their ovaries united (6). The stamens are also united at 
the base, or monadelphous {monos, one, adelphos, brother- 
hood), (3). 

./SJsiivati07i, — Here recurs an interesting topic sug- 
gested by the curious posture of the petals when just open- 
ing. How are they folded together in the bud ? The in- 
quiry is important, since many genera and eyen some orders 
are characterized by their mode of aestivation. (See the 
plan, 1.) In reference to the Wood Sorrel the student 
would instantly reply, " The petals are twisted in the bud V^ 
And the terms contorted or convolute express the idea. The 
petals are all rolled together in one direction, each having 
one edge within and one without. The same is true of the 
flowers of Cranebills, and generally of Storkbills. 

Sleep. — At the approach of night, or in cloudy weather, 
these flowers close up and fold their contorted petals again 
as in the bud. So also do the leaves. At night each leaflet 
falls back on the stalk, folds its two halves together face to 
face, and thus remains asleep, as it were, until awakened b}- 
the morning sun.* 



* The xig'ils of plants are evidently dependent on the degree of light ; hut different 
species are variously affected. While many, like Oxalis, open and close with the day 
for many days in succession, others, like the Morning Glory or the Portulacas, open 
for a day only, and perish. The evening Primrose opens at G o'clock P. M. for a 
night, perishing at sunrise ; and the Four-o-clock at about that hour for a few hours 
only, and the Water Lily (Nymphaea) opens and reopens only while the sun is high, 
from 8 to 2. And there are other plants which, like the Gerania, open once for all. 
and close not by night or day, until they close forever. 

Recent researches show that the sleep of plan.ts generally hears some relation to 
their peculiar wants. Thus the Daisy closes its flowers and hangs its head when 
night comes on, or the gathering clouds forhode a storm, lest the dew or rain dissolve 
the nectar stored up in its florets. The Mpplevrort (Lapsana), common in Etirope, 
opens before six and closes before ten in the morning, in order that the bees who are 
early risers may taste its nectar, and not the ants, who delay until the dew is off, and 
would not scatter its pollen. Again, night-flowers are adapted to the habits of certain 
nocturnal moths which are needful agents in their fertilization. Such flowers are 
always white or pale yellow, the only colors visible in the darkness. 



93 YELLOW W0(3D SORREU 

The J^rtcU is an oblong capsule (7) made up of 5 car- 
pels, each with a row of seeds in its cell (8). The carpels 
open on the back {dorsal dehiscence) and do not separate 
from the central axis {carjpopliore) at once as they do in the 
regma of Geranium. The seed is anatropous (9), with a 
loose, separable outer coat (10, 11) and a large straight em- 
bryo buried in albumen (12). 

The Pla]^ (1) shows the sepals to be quincuncial (p. 43) 
and the petals contorted in aestivation. 

The Name of this plant, Oxalis {oxus, sour), refers to 
the taste of the herbage given to it by the presence of oxalic 
acid in the form of a salt (binoxalate of potash). The spe- 
cific name, 0. stricta, alludes to its upright stem ; the other 
species being mostly acaulescent. Oxalis is an admirable 
genus, embracing in all lands 220 species, many of which 
are beautiful conservatory and house plants.* 

Classification. — The student can hardly fail to notice 
the striking resemblance of the Oxalides to the Gerania. 
Their flowers are completely analogous. The fruit in both 
consists of 5 carpels — as many as the sepals, attached to a 
central axis arising from the torus. Oxalis takes rank, 
therefore, with the Gerania in the Order Geraniaceag. 

Scientifi.C Terms. — Alternate. AxiL Axillary. Contorted. Con- 
volute. Dorsal dehiscence. Leaflets. Monadelplious. Obcorduie. 
Palmate-trifoliolate. Pinnate-trifoliolate. Trifoliolate. Umbellate. 

* One of the nio'^t popular is O. floribimda (Lehmami) from Brazil. A specimen 
growing in our study has bloomed five months continuously, displajing some SjG 
roseate flowers on every sunny day. It is very exacting iu its vigils, closing its leaves 
at sunset, and its flowers always except in the sunshine. 



TROP^OLUM. 93 



XXII. THE JEWEL WEED. 

Description. — There is a tall, smooth herb, with pel- 
lucid, jointed stalks, abundant in low swamps and along 
shaded rivulets, variously called Jewel-weed, Snap-weed, 
Touch-me-not, &c. Fresh specimens, together with the 
cuts, will shoAv^ how much a flower may differ from its kin- 
dred and still be recognized. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Kegion. — The annual root ; the 
Juicy stem, with its tumid nodes ; the ovate, serrate leaves ; 
and the axillary inflorescence, present no new features. The 
student unaided may readily characterize them. But the 
flowers and fruit are remarkable. 

The Flower Eegio]S".— The jP^ lowers, although so very 
irregularly and oddy developed, are evidently in nature and 
intention 5-parted. Their color is a deep orange spotted with 
reddish-brown. Only 4 sepals appear, but the upper one (See, 
2, 8) is notched at the broad apex, showing it to be double, or 
composed of 2 sepals united. The lower (y) is a conical hood 
{ciiciillate), or a cornucopia, tipped with an inflected spur. 
Only 2 petals appear {jj p), but eaoh has a lobe and is evi- 
dently composed of 2 united petals. There are 5 short sta- 
mens mth introrse (p. 40) anthers, and bearing 5 scales cov- 
ering the stigma, which is sessile on the ovary. A vertical 
section (1) gives an inside view of the flower. 

The JF^ruit is a general wonder. In form and structure 
(3) it resembles that of Oxalis ; in behavior, it is very dif- 
ferent. At maturity its 5 muscular carpels or valves become 
. elastic springs ready to break loose at the slightest touch. 
Coiling with a sudden jerk they fly from the central axis (4) 
and scatter the seeds in every direction.* 

* This is one of the many devices for the dispersion of seeds in which intelligence 
and wisdom are manifest. The seeds of Maple and Ash are furnished with wings for 



94 



THE JEWEL WEED. 




s 6 7 . 

Fig XXn.— Impatiens fulva : 1, a flower dissected ; 2, a flower displayed ; 3, ripe 
fruit ; 4, the same just exploded ; ^, a seed ; G, sectiou ; 7. ^ cotyledons of the 
embryo exposed. 



TEOP^OLUIVL 95 

The Seed appears in (5) to be anatropous ; in (6) and 
(7), dicotyledonous, without albumen^, the large straight 
embryo filling the testa. (8) is the naked embryo. 

The Name. — In this connection, let the Garden Balsam 
be analyzed. Though very different in general aspect, we 
shall find that the aboye description of the Jewel-weed 
applies to it in almost everything but color and clothing. 
Both are species of the genus Impdtiens (impatient). The 
Jewel-weed is /. fulva (JSTuttall), the Balsamine, /. Balsamina 
(Linn.).* 

Classification. — How do these plants resemble the 
Gerania ? — In their tumid nodes, d-parted floivers, d-carpelled 
fruit, elastic carpels, central axis, and iji the spurred loiver 
sepal, here free from the pedicel while in Storkbills adher- 
ing to it. These are marks of the Order Geraniaceae. 

XXIII. THE NASTURTION, OR INDIAN CRESS. 

Description. — This old and popular garden flower 
assumes a style of beauty intermediate between the Gerania 
and the Jewel-weed. It is a native of Peru, whence it was 
brought nearly 200 years ago. Its study will reveal several 
new forms of structure, both in leaf and flower. It is an 
annual herb, or with protection, biennial ; but the root per- 

this purpose. Tick-seeds and Burr-seeds are provided with hooks and barbs by which 
they lay hold of men and animals and are thus, by unwilling agents, scattered far and 
wide. The seeds of Thistle, Dandelion, Silkgrass, made buoyant by means of their 
downy appendages, are wafted afar, beyond rivers, lakes and seas. The Squirting 
Cucumber, as it ripens, becomes distended with water until at last it breaks from its 
stem and projects through the rupture, with amazing force, the mingled seeds and 
water. Rivers and Ocean currents are always transporting se'^ds from country to 
country. Thus the Cocoa and the Cashew nut and the seeds of Mahogany have been 
known to perform long voyages without injury to their vitality. Squirrels laying up 
their winter stores in the earth, birds migrating from clime to clime and from island 
to island, conspire to effect the same important end. 

* Only 2 species are native in N. America. 1 in Europe, 1 in Siberia, 1 in Madagas- 
car, and 100 in India. All are remarkable for the elastic bursting valves o^" theii 
pods. 



96 THE NASTURTIAI^, OR INDIAN CRESS. 

ishes with the stem. It is cultivated from seed both foi 
ornament and use. 



ORGAK. 


Xife, ^abit, A'umber, Place, i)ehiscence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, /Size, Qualities, J.ppendages, 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


herb terrestrial^ erect, tall {3— 5 ft,), smooth. 


Root, L.K. 


Annual, axial* 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


Herbaceous, erect, branching, terete, with tumid nodes. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Deciduous, alternate, pinni-veined, petiolate, simple, ovate, 
serrate, 1^3' long, smooth. 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


Axillary, racemed, pedunculate, bracted. 


Flower, N.K.C.S, 


5'parted, perfect, irregular, unsymmetrical, V long. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Saccate and spmred, colored like the corolla. [inflected. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Deciduous, U, imbr., upper double, lower a cornucopia, spur 


Corolla, F.Q. 


Much suppressed and deformed, orange-color, spotted. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Decid., 2, imbric, spreading, double, unequally 2-lobed, 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


5, hypogynous, short, each bearing a scale. 


Anther, P.D.C.F. 


Innate, introrse, dehisc. lengthwise, oxate. 


Stj^le, N.C.F. 


Very short or none, [filaments. 


Stigma, N.F. 


5 united into 1, sessile, 5-lobed, covered by the 5 scales of the 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


Compound, superior, 5-celled, oblong. 


Fruit, N.D.K.F Q. 


A 5-valved capsule, oblong, opening dastically. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


Several, exalbuminous, with straight embryo. 


LOCALITY.-/;^ wet woods, HohoTcen, N. J, (Date), May 27, 1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.— PHEIVOG AMI A, 

Order.— Gekaniace^, The Ckanebills. 
Natmt;.— Latin, luipatiens fulva. 

—English, ToTich-me-not. Jewel-weed. 



Analysis. — The Slem is slender and weak, trailing 
along the ground, or climbing, not by twining, but by the 



TROP^OLUJVL 97 

help of its leaf -stalks. Thus it may arise 3 feet or protected 
from frosts in the house, 6 feet. 

The Z/eaves have the form of a shield or target {ideltd) 
called pelf ate. The roundish or angular blade is attached to 
its stalk not by its margin, but by a point within. It is a 
singular form ; but if you compare it with a leaf of the 
Horseshoe Geranium (p. 87) you will doubtless conclude 
that it results from the cohesion of the 2 base lobes. The 
same thing occurs in the Ivy Geranium. The long petiole, 
when its help is needed in climbing, coils about the support- 
ing object like a tendril, as in that plant also. 

The Flower. All parts of the 5-parted irregular flower 
are alike colored, orange or yariegated. The upper sepal is 
united at the base with the other 4 and produced backward 
into a spur. The petals are inserted in or on the throat of 
the spur, the 2 upper sessile, the 3 lower fringed {fimlriate) 
at the base and supported on a claw (imgiiis)^ or unguicidate. 
There are 8 unequal stamens, and 3 oyaries around the cen- 
tral axis or style. (See Fig. XXIII, Appendix.) 

The Fruzt. The ripe fruit contains 3 large, fleshy, 
ribbed, 1-seeded nuts, such as we often see upon the table 
as a substitute for Capers.* 

Classification. — This plant is sometimes called Trophy- 
wort, its leayes and flowers being likened to shields and 
helmets. For a like reason the generic name is Tropceohim 
{tropcBum, a trophy). The species is T. major ; i. e., the 
Greater Trophywort. Its flowers S-parted and spurred, its 
stamens unsyrnmetrical^ and its 1-seeded, separable carpels, 
ally it to the Storkbills and the Order Geraniaceae. 

The Order Geraniaceae, as now constituted, associates 16 genera 
and nearly 750 species. But the association is not truly natural, and 



* The true cajpers are the flower-buds of Capparis spindsa. a shrub of S. Europe, 
preserved in vinegar. 

5 



98 THE shepherd's purse. 

the genera are often too discordant for a liappy family. They there- 
fore resolve themselves into several clans or suborders. The five 
genera last treated, viz., Geranium, Pelargonium, Oxalis, Impatiens, 
and Tropoeolum, represent at least four of these suborders, which for 
a long time were regarded as Orders. (See Botanist and Florist, 
p. 67, flora.) The following formula, brief and easily remembered, 
will, with few exceptions, characterize all the Geraniacese : 

Herbs or shrubs. 

Flowers perfect, symmetrical. 

Stamens as many or twice as many as the sepals, often some of them 
abortive. 

Carpels and cells as many as the sepals, separating from a persist- 
ent axis or carpophore. 

Seeds few, with no albumen (except in Oxalis). 

Scientific Terms.— Fimbriate. Peltate. Suborder. Unguiculate, 

XXIV. THE SHEPHERD'S PURSE. 

Description. — This is a homely little weed intruding 
itself into gardens and fields everywhere unbidden, yet illus- 
trating the principles of Botany and the mysteries of vege- 
table life quite as well as loftier plants. Beginning to 
blossom in early Spring, it continues developing flower after 
flower as it rises higher and higher, until fruit and flowel 
together embellish the long racemes. 

Analysis. — The Leaf EEGiOiir. — The student will now 
require no further aid in recording the analysis of the root 
and stem ; the longevity, venation and inflorescence ; the 
presence or absence of stijoules, petioles, bracts, hairs, and 
branches ; and the position and arrangement of the leaves. 

The Ijeaves are of two forms. The radical are oblong 
and pinnatifid or feather-cleft ; the cauline are sagittate or 
arrow-shaped {sagitta, an arrow), and amplexicaul (stem- 
clasping). Here observe, whence do the branches arise ? 
(p. 90). What is the position of the racemes ? What is the 
procession of the flowering ? 




Pig. XXrV.— Caps^lla Bursa-pastdris : 1, '.he flower ; 2, the stamens and pistil ; 3, 
the pistil alone ; 4, the pistil seen edgewise ; 6, the silicle ; 6, the same open, showing 
the seeds ; 7, a seed ; 8, 9, embryo, with co' /ledons incumbent. 



100 THE shepherd's PURSE. 

The Flower Kegion. — The J^Io7i^e?'s,'2i^ a whole, (1) are 
4-parted, regular, and unsymmetrical (for the special organs 
are not all of this radical number 4, nor multiples of it), 
viz., sepals 4, petals 4, stamens 6 (2), pistils 2 (3, 4), united 
and stigma double, with a short, thick style. Observe the 
relative length of the stamens (2) ; 2 of them are shorter 
than the other 4 — a fact denoted by the term tetradynamons. 
Also the special form of such corollas or flowers is cruciform 
{crux, a cross), and resembles, when the petals are spread, 
the Maltese cross. 

The Fruit. As the raceme is the oldest at its base, 
there we must look for the earliest fruits. Their curious 
shape reminds one of a leathern pouch — the shepherd's 
purse, of course. Their form is obcordate. Their slender 
pedicels are longer than when in flower. A thin narrow 
partition within divides them crosswise into 2 cells, and at 
langth they break into as many boat-shaped or carinate 
valves, liberating the seeds. Such a fruit, when short as in 
this case, is called a silicle (a little pod) ; when long as in 
Mustard, a silique. 

The Seed in its testa appears as in (7), with its embryo 
bent double ; also in the cross-section (8), and the naked 
embryo (9). But the radicle is so bent as to lie over on the 
hach of one of the cotyledons, not on its edge. So this seed 
is said to be with radicle incmnlent. It has no albumen. 

The Name, Capsella (a little box or capsule), is applied 
to the genus. The specific term, C. Bursa-pastdris, is the 
same meaning in Latin as in English.* 

Scientific Terms.— Amplexicaul. Carinate. Cruciform. Pin- 
natifid. Radical number. Sagittate. Silicle. Silique. Tetradyna- 
mous. Unsymmetrical. 

* Indeed the name as well as the plant seems to he truly cosmopolite. The trav- 
eler who sees little else to remind him of his native soil, can generally find the 
homely Shepherd's Purse growing hy the wayside. It is ahundant even amid the 
classic ruins of Kome. and there too the peasant calls it '*Borsa de Pastor." 



CARDAMiNE. 101 

XXV. THE TOOTHROOT CRESS. 

Description. — This plant frequents the rich woodlands 
of the Northern and Western States, by the streams and 
fountains, blooming in the spring months. It is glabroiis 
(smooth), 1 foot high, and often called Pepper-root. 

Analysis. — The ^ooi-siock, by its peculiar shape, 
'suggests the former name, and by its crisp, pungent taste, 
the latter. It is long, creeping, white and fleshy, with many 
knobby, tooth-like projections, and is sometimes broken up 
into a string of knobby tubers. 

The Stem with its two opposite trifoliolate leaves and 
terminal raceme, presents no new features. 

The Ftowers are constructed on the plan described 
under Capsella, but are large and showy. When the 4 ob- 
long white petals are expanded, their mimicry of the Mal- 
tese cross justifies the term cruciform so generally applied 
to this class of flowers. 

The Fricit affords a new field of study. But if your 
specimens are not well matured, search for riper ones. The 
form is outwardly a contrast T\4th the silicles of Capsella. 
The pod is many times longer than wide, lanceolate-linear, 
broadest near the middle and tapering below to the pedicel 
and aboYC to the style. It is composed of 2 carpels and 
opens by 2 valyes. Within, it is divided lengthwise into 2 
cells. Each cell nourishes a row of seeds attached alter- 
nately to opposite sides of the valve or partition. 

Notwithstanding the difference in external form, this fruit 
agrees in structure with the silicic of Capsella, and its name, 
silique, is of similar import : Silicle being a short pod and 
silique a long one. 

The Seed^ skillfully dissected, as seen in (4, 5), she *v^s the 
embryo bent double, so that the radicle rests on the edge of 



102 



THE TOOXHiiOOT OftESS* 




Fig. XXV.— Cardamine diphylla : 1, the stamens, and 1 style ; 2, a silique ; 3, seedf 
In the silique ; 4, seed cut across ; 5, the embryo— cotyledons accumbent. 



CAKDAMIKE. 103 

the two cotyledons. The phrase cotyledoiis accumhent is 
applied to seeds so constructed. Compare this with the seed 
of Capsella. 

The Name of this plant is Cardavilne diphylla, or the 
Two-leayed Toothroot. There are other species haying 3 
whorled leayes, and still others with alternate leayes.* 

Classification. — Here let the student take note of the 
affinities of these two genera, Capsella and Cardamine, in 
the following points. Thus will he learn the characters of a 
large and important Order, the Crucieer^, or Crucifers.t 

Herbs, without stipules. 

Inflorescence centripetal, bractless racemes. 

Flowers cruciform, perfect. 

Stamens didynamous, hypogynous. 

Ovary double. 

Fruit siliques, long or sbort. 

Seeds exalbuminous, with the embryo bent double. 

The Order of Crucifers is truly natural, and embraces about 
172 genera and 1600 species, chiefly in the Temperate Zone. More 
than 100 species are peculiar to this Continent. Among them are 
nutritious vegetables, as Cabbage, Turnip, Radish. Some are condi- 
ments m general use ; as Horse-radish, Mustard. The bland Rape- 
seed oil is expressed from the seeds of the Rape {Brdssica Napus), 
Woad, a blue dye. is obtained from the root of Isdtis tinctdria.X In 
medicine the Crucifers are stimulant and antiscorbutic, but none are 
poisonous. They all contain a volatile acrid principle abounding in 
sulphur and nitrogen, which is the cause of the unpleasant odor they 
emit in decaying. Here too belongs many a favorite garden flower, 
like Sweet Alyssum, Candytuft, Wall-flower {Cheiranthus), Honesty 
(Lunaria)y and Stock {Matthiola). 

* The Toothroots were first namod by Linnsens, Denfdna {dens, a tooth). The 
original species v/ere easily distinguished from the genus Cardamine. But other 
species recently found in California combine the characters of both genera, so as to 
unite them into one, taking tho older name. Some authors, however, still retain the 
genus Ben*^ria, and call our plant D. diph-'ila. Thi'^ i^ therefore its synonym. 

t In this connection, let the Mustard plant, Wall-flower, Pepper-grass, Candytuft, 
&c., be analy2:ed and registered. 

X This dye is famous in history as having b-^en employed by the Britons in stain- 
ing their bodies in order to frighten their enemies. 



104 THE STKAWBERRY. 

Scientific Terms. — Cotyledons accumbent. Cotyledons incum 
bent. Glabrous. Silicle. Silique. Synonym. 



XXVI. THE STRAWBERRY. 

Description.— May, charming May is the festival of the 
Roseworts. Now trees and shrubs, as well as tender herbs, 
are bursting into bloom, adorning field and forest. So 
many and yaried are the flowers asking attention, that one 
is bewildered in choosing. Among the Eoseworts let us first 
examine the Strawberry plant. 

Analysis. — The ^oo^smd. Siem are, as in Liverleaf and 
Blue Violet, subterranean. But the stem (crown, p. 53) at 
certain times sends out from its top a slender, terete, red 
runner^ one or more, a foot in length, tipped with a bud, 
which on touching the soil, develops roots downward and 
leaves upward, and so founds a new plant. 

The Z/eaves are complete in their organization, having 
blade, petiole, and stipules — the blade palmate-trifoliolate 
as in Oxalis (p. 90). The leaflets are ovate, oval or obo- 
vate, coarsely serrate^ having teeth pointing forward like 
sawteeth, and, like the scapes, pubescent, with soft appressed 
hairs. The petioles are villous, with coarser spreading hairs.* 

The Scape branches irregularly into a cluster, of which 
the central flower is the oldest ; hence the inflorescence is 
centrifugal, progressing from the center outward, and the 
cluster, a cyme. 

* The hairs of plants constitnte an interesting study. They are composed of a 
single long cell, or of a transparent tissue of cells placed end to end like a string of 
beads. There is an endless variety In their length, abundance, and quality. Some- 
times they are soft and close like down, sometimes stiff and rough like bristles. Now 
they form a fringe like an eyelash, and now they silver the surface with a silky gloss. 
Here they curve backward into a hook, oftentimes barbed. In the Nettle, they are 
hollow stings with a bag of poison concealed. In the Sun-dew, they are tipped with 
a glistening exudation like a dew-drop. They warmly clothe the early catkins of the 
Willow, and decoraLe the landscape in the waving plumes of the Pampas Grass. Cot- 
ton, a great staple of commerce, is but the hair with which a seed is fledged. 



FBAGABIA. 



lOS 




Fig. XXYT. — Fragaria vesca : 1, a leaf with its stipules ; 2, a cyme ; 8, frait ; 4, ver- 
tical section of a flower ; 5, a stamen, innate ; 6, a pistil with la4;eral style ; 7, vertical 
section of a strawberry. 



1(>6 THE STliAVVBEKHY. 

The ^tower^ in its general plan, resembles the Butter- 
cup ; but have you not already taken note of two remarkable 
differences? The 5 green sepals are here reinforced by 5 
similar alternating bracts, appearing like a double calyx or 
a calyx of 10 sepals. The oo (= many) stamens, a multiple 
of 5 (at least in the wild plant), are, in situation, perigyiious 
{peri, around, gy7ih, pistil), i. e., adhering at the base to the 
calyx as if inserted on it (4). How does this compare with 
the flower of Buttercup ? It is an important distinction. 
The 00 pistils, situated as in Buttercup, are peculiar in form 
(6), with a lateral style, and quite distinct from one another. 

The JPrtiit is a strawberry ; it needs no other name, for 
there is no other like it. It consists of the enlarged pulpy 
torus (7) bearing on its surface the many one-seeded carpels 
— the achenia, the true fruit of the botanist.* While in 
bloom, the flowers are erect and above the leaves, but in 
fruit they nod and ripen in partial concealment. 

•/SJstivatiOii. The 5 white petals, like those of the 
Buttercup, are quincuncial, i. e., 2 are wholly outside, 2 are 
wholly within, and 1 oblique, or half without and haK 
within. Compare this with the flower of Oxalis. f 

The Name, Fragaria, alludes to the fragrance of the 
luxurious fruit. Two species, F, Virginiana, and F, vesca, 
grow wild in woods and fields. Under cultivation, the 
pulpy torus is wonderfully enlarged. 

Scientific Terms. — Complete leaves. Cyme. Imbricate. Pe- 
rigynous. Pubescent. Quincuncial. Runners. Serrate. Villous. 

* In the vegetable economy the pulpy deposit in fruits has reference to the disper- 
sion of the seeds rather than their nourishment in germination. It feeds and nour- 
ishes the birds, which in turn plant afar off the seeds which they have swallowed, 
while man avails himself of only its superabundance. It is interesting to note the 
varieties of form and place which this deposit takes in different fruits. In the straw- 
berry, the delicious morsel is in the torus ; in the raspberry it is in the achenia ; in 
the blackberry, in both torus and achenia. In the checkerberry, the calyx contains 
the rich deposit ; in the grape, the pericarp, and in the apple, both calyx and peri- 
narp, while in the pineapple the whole inflorescence becomes gorged with pulp. 

t The term imbricate is more general, applying to both these special forms in 
Vhich the petals overlap each other like shingles. (See p. 43, Note.) 



PYBUS. 107 

XXVII. THE APPLE TREE, 

The Tree. — The transition from the humble herb to the 
lofty tree is sufficiently abrupt ; but except in growth and 
stature, the real difference may be slight. While the herb 
devotes its entire annual income to its offspring, the tree 
reserves a portion for itself, treasuring up solid wood in its 
stem and branches. 

The T^naik is the appropriate name for the stem of a 
tree — one of the most interesting and useful of all natural 
objects. In the Apple Tree, it is short and definite, seldom 
more than 7 or 8 feet high. At the base in the ground, and 
at its summit, it suddenly terminates, dissolying into roots 
strong and far-reaching below,* and into branches, branchlets 
and spray aboTC, forming the rounded, aerial liead. This 
kind of trunk is termed solvent, in distinction from the 
excurrent trunk, as shown in the Pines (p. 216). 

The Woody seen in cross-sections easily made with a saw 
and plane (8), displays, 1st, the pith in or near the center ; 
2d, the purple heart-wood \ around it ; 3d, the white sap-wood 
around the heart-wood; 4th, the iarh around all; 5th, the 
annual layers or wood-rings, here two only, of which the 
outer is the younger ; and 6th, the silvery medullary rays 
running from the pith [medulla) to the bark. Each layer is 
the growth of a year ; consequently the number of the lay- 
ers suggests the age of the branch, and a similar section of 

* If all the roots of growing plants could be laid bare of earth, the sight would be 
marvelous. It is roughly estimated that an Elm is as large below as above ground. 
What shall we say of the root of the common Red Clover, which has been known to 
descend a distance of five feet ; or a stalk of Wheat which, within forty-seven days 
after planting, sent down its fibers into a light subsoil seven feet ? The roots, blindly 
se:irching around after food, often seem to be endowed with some special sense. 

t More properly called duramen (^Zz/?^/5. hard). It is heart-wood only in respect to 
situation, for it bears no part in the life and vegetation of the plant. It is more the 
seat of death than of life ; hence it often decays, leaving the trunk hollow while the 
tree is as flourishing as ever. Thus the tree at once both lives and dies, like the Coral, 
Which is dead below and alive at the extremities. 



108 



THE APPLE TREE. 



the trunk indicates the age of the tree. They also show that 
the wood grows externally, for the new layer is deposited 
outside the old wood next to the bark. In other words, the 
mode of its growth is exogenous (exo, outside, genao, I grow). 
Compare the growth of the Palm (p. 225). 




Pig. XXVn.— FloweriDg branch of Pynis Mains : 1, section of a flower ; % sec- 
tion of the ovary ; 3, section of the fruit (apple) ; 4, a seed ; 5, 6, sections of same ; 
7, the embryo. 



PYRUS. 



109 



The Food of Pla:n^ts. — Whence and what are the man 
terials for sustaining this growth ? Learn from the treat- 
ment which your house plants receive. Their roots are im- 
mersed in a pot of soil. You shower them at night with 
water containing a little added ammonia. You open the 




8, cross-section of an exogenous stem of 2 years' growth: 1, pith ; 2, 3, annual lay- 
ers of wood ; 4, the bark and white new layer {cambium) under it. 9, an endogenoui 
stem (Indian Com), with no layers nor bark. 

windows in the morning to bathe them in fresh air. Then, 
with warmth and sunshine, they ask no more. So the tree, 
by its myriad of roots and rootlets, imbibes water containing 
ammonia and various mineral matters in solution. Thence 
this saj:), as we call it, creeping from cell to cell of the root, 
stem and branch, and dissolving the sugar, gum, &c., it finds 
on the way, finally reaches the leaves. Here is the chemical 
laboratory of the plant.* Much of the water having per- 
formed its work of carrying up the raw material from the 
earth, evaporates through the pores of the leaf.f Through 

* It is curious to notice how the trunk and branches of the tree are all the work o^ 
the frail and transient leaf. Slowly, year after year, generation after generation, it is 
steadily elaborating, from air and rain and sunshine, these solid structures which are 
to remain its endm-ing monument, when it has faded and crumbled to dust. 

t It has been found by experiment that the leaves of plants exhaie moisture to an 
enormous amotmt. An acre of beets, during a single day of stinshine, evaporates 
from IT to 19 thousand pounds of water. A Chestnut tree 35 years old, in 24 hours, 
lost over 63 quarts of water. The upward pressure of the ascending sap is very great. 
Experiments were made, in 1720, by Dr. Hales of England, proving that this force in 
a Grapevi-e was equal to the weight of a column of water 43 feet high. Similar 
experiments were made in 1S73, by President Clark, of the Massachusetts Agricultural 
College, on a native vine (Vitis eestiv^is). On May day, a mercurial gauge was 



110 THE APPLE TKEE. 

these same pores the leaf inhales the air, and now under 
the influence of the sun (see Chemistry, pp. 97, 181, 237) 
the sap is converted into a thin mucilage which contains all 
the elements of vegetable growth. The sap then descends * 
and spreads through the tree, especially along the inner sur- 
face of the bark, supplying every want of the young layer of 
wood, of the leaf and the flower. 

Analysis. — The Z^eaves of the Apple Tree are com- 
plete, having a pair of subulate (awl-shaped) stipules at the 
base of the short petiole. The blade is ovate, serrate, and 
beneath tomentous with a dense covering of matted hairs. 
Its venation is pinni-veined and reticulated. 

The Injl07^escence is an umbel issuing from one bud, 
with no peduncle and therefore sessile. 

The Ftowe7^s are pedicellate, regular, 5-parted, polyan- 
drous, perigynous, rose-white, fragrant ; the 5 sepals are so 
united below as to form an urn-shaped fleshy tube which 
adheres to and encloses the 5-carpelled ovary (1, 2) ; f the 5 
petals are broadly oval, quincuncial (p. 43), inserted by their 
short claws with the oo perigynous stamens (p. 106). The 5 
styles are partly united. 

The J^ruii is a ]^ome (3). Mark how it is crowned with 
the persistent calyx lobes (sepals), a proof that the pome 
consists of the enlarged calyx-tube with the enclosed ovary, 
both gorged with pulp. Make a cross-section (2, 3) and see 
the 5 cells with cartilaginous walls, and the circular gTcenish 
line around them in the pulp marking the boundary between 

attached to the severed end of one of its main roots. At first there was a suction 
downward, giadually diminishing until the 10th. Thence until the 29th, an upward 
pressure increased and attained a force equal to the weight of 88 feet of water I 

* We can easily prove the existence of this descending current, for on making an 
incision into the hark of a young branch, the sap will ooze fi-om the upper and not the 
lower lip of the cut. 

t Thus the ovary is apparently situated hdow the calyx, whence it is said incor- 
rectly to be inferior^ and the calyx svperior. The phrase ovary adherent, or calyx 
adherent are of the same meaning and more correct. In all the flowers heretofore 
analyzed the calyx is free (inferior) and the ovary free (superior). 



PYRUS. 



Ill 



the ovary and the calyx tube. In each of the 5 cells are 2 
seeds, each large enough for an easy analysis (4). The 
brown testa outside is readily separated from the soft, 
white inner coat {tegmen). The cut (7) shows the naked 
embryo, with its radicle and two cotyledons ; (5) and (6) are 
sections. 




10, gennination of the Beech-nut : 10, cross-section showing the 2 folded cotyle- 
dons ; 11, the radicle only protruded ; 12, the ascending axis above c appears ; 13, 
the cotyledons expand into a pair of leaves— the first two, and show the plumule ; 14, 
with rootlets and the first leaves from the plumule. 

Germination. Plant these seeds, or find in the garden 
seeds already sprouted {germinating), and learn what the 
seyeral parts become in the plant. Here is seen the radi- 
cle, r, growing downward as the root, the plurmde, p, grow- 
ing upward as the stem, and the 2 cotyledons ajopearing and 
acting as the first leaves. The store of food laid up in them 
is serving (like the albumen where there is any) for the nour- 



112 THE ROSE. 

ishment of the plantlet until with roots and leaves of its own 
it becomes able to provide for itself. * 

The Name, Pyrus, the Latin word for Pear, was adopted 
by Linnaeus as the title of a genus including the Pear, Apple, 
and other trees. The specific name, Malus, is the ancient 
Roman term for Apple. 

Scientific Terms. — Adherent calyx. Adherent ovary. Annual 
layers. Bark. Cambium. Exogenous. Excurrent trunk. Free calyx. 
Free ovary. Germination. Heart-wood. Inferior calyx. Inferior ovary . 
Medullary rays. Pith. Plumule. Sap-wood. Solvent trunk. Superior 
calyx. Superior ovary. Tegmen. Testa. 



XXVIII. THE ROSE. 

Description. — Among flowers the Kose reigns supreme. 

Without it no garden^ however humble^ is thought complete. 
For its dignity^ fragrance^ and infinitude of form and color^ 
it is interwoven with all poetry and art. f The species grow- 
ing wild in the whole world may be 120^ while the garden 
varieties are numbered by thousands. Double Roses are the 
delight of the florist^ and very instructive ; but they are unfit 
for regular analysis. You must bring the Wild Eose of the 
swamp or prairie, or the Sweet Brier of the field. 

* Here the analysis of the Pear, Peach, and Cherry flowers will he in order, also 

the Yellow Cinquef oil (Potentilla). Compare the flowers hy making vertical sections, 
and you will find striking analogies as well as contrasts. In Raspherry, the torus 
and its ovaries are elevated ahove the calyx ; in Cinquefoil, they are on a level ; in 
Rosa (1), depressed far below it. 

- t The Rose was a great favorite with the Greeks and Romans. Nero caused show- 
ers of Roses to he sprinkled on his guests at banquets, and Heliogabalus carried this 
to such an extent that several persons were suffocated before they could extricate 
themselves from the mass. The Sybarites, it is said, slept on couches stuffed with 
Rose petals. This flower was dedicated to the god of silence, and a Rose hanging 
over a guest-table was a hint that conversation was to he "sub-rosa.'' It was cus- 
tomary for wreaths of Roses to be worn by warriors, while Rose-leaves (petals) were 
strewn on the dishes on festal occasions, and the bushes were planted on graves as a 
mark of respect and love. In later times the Rose was especially dedicated to the 
Virgin, and in Dante's Paradise she is termed the '* Mystic Rose." 




Fig. XXVIIL— Rosa Carolina : 1, vertical section of flower (minus the petals) ; 2, a 
stamen ; 3, a pistil ; 4, showing the 1 ovule ; 5, the hip (fruit) ; 6, section ; 7, an ache- 
nium ; 8, showing the suspended seed. 

113 



114 THE ROSE. 

Analysis. — We have in hand a shrub, with woody stems, 

4 to 6 feet high — your own stature more or less. It is 
beset with prickles. Mark their structure ; comj^are them 
with the thorns of the thorn-apple^ and note how they 
differ. 

The Jjeaves are odd-pinnate, consisting of 5 to 9 (an odd 
number) elliptical, serrate leaflets, with pinnate and reticu- 
late veins. The 2 narrow stipules are adnate to the petiole. 

The I?iJlo7^esce7ice is in the form of a corymb — the 
peduncle branching into unequal pedicels bearing the flow- 
ers at about the same level. 

The J^iojrer may be cut vertically (1) for a better view 
of the structure. The calyx tube is seen inclosing, but not 
adhering to the 15 — 20 distinct, inferior (?) ovaries. The 

5 sepals are some or all of them tipped with a leaflet. The 5 
quincuncial, broad-obcordate, rose-colored petals are inserted 
with the GO perigynous stamens on the calyx tube. 

The F7ndi, generally called a hip (5, 6), is globular, 
fleshy^ red, inclosing (not adhering to) the 15 or more dis- 
tinct bony achenia. The styles are persistent (3, 4). The 
seed is anatropous, suspended from the upper part of the 
cell (7, 8). 

The Double Eose. — In wild native plants double flower- 
ing is extremely rare. Have you ever known an instance ? 
This phenomenon seems to be an unnatural condition 
induced and perpetuated by the art of the cultivator. Its 
study reveals many secrets of nature's laws. In any col- 
lection of Roses we find some single and natural, some semi- 
double, and some fully double. The 1st exhibits a corolla of 
5 broad, equal petals, and a great number of stamens within 
its enclosure. The 2d displays a 5-petaled corolla with 20 or 
more narrow petals superadded, and in their midst a dimin- 
ished number of stamens. The 3d shows a hundred petals 



ROSA. 115 

filling the entire space within the original corolla. What 
has become of the stamens ? Look again at the semidouble 
Rose. You find the stamens in a state of transition, as it 
were ; some perfect, yellow ; some with a slight red expan- 
sion on one side, others on both sides ; some again half sta- 
men and half petal, and in all degrees of progress — plainly 
indicating whither the stamens are going and have gone. 
From this study, the nature of the double Eose, and the 
tendency of the stamens become manifest. In the semi- 
double, a part of the stamens have been transformed to 
petals, and in the double, all of them. 

The metamorphosis often goes still further. In that curi- 
ous variety, the Green Rose, the stamens have all reverted 
first to petals, and then to leaves. In the Damask Rose, we 
have occasionally seen a leafy branch occupying the place of 
the stamens and pistils. Similar changes are continually 
occurring not only in Rose, but in Paeony, Camellia, Bal- 
samine, Violet, and other plants, and all agree in teaching 
that the stamen is a leaf modified and adapted to a special 
purpose. The student will look for further illustration of 
this interesting doctrine, which was first suggested by Lin- 
naeus about A. D. 1750. 

The Name Rosa is of Latin origin. The wild species 
just described and portrayed is i?. Carolina, 

Classification. — The Strawberry, Apple Tree, and Rose, 
as we now see, are allied to one another and to the Order of 
the Rosacea, or Roseworts, by the following characters : 

Stipules present. Stamens cc perigynous. 

Flowers regular. Seed anatropous. 

Corolla quincuncial. Embryo straight. 

Albumen none. • 

Tlie Roseworts, moreover, having the embryo 2-l6bed, their flotr. 
ers 4 CLnd 5 parted, their leaves net-veined, and their wood, if any, growing 



116 THE ROSE. 

ly annual external layers, are classed, with the Crowfoots, Crucifers, 
Cranebills, &c., in the province of the Exogens.* It is a large and 
important Order, including 71 genera and 1000 species, arranged in 
several suborders (see Botanist and Florist, p. 101). They are chiefly 
natives of the N. Temperate regions. Their prevailing property in 
bark and root is astringency. Prussic acid occurs in the Almond and 
Apple suborders. Many of the species produce edible fruits. 

The Peach tree {Amygdalas persica) is a native of Persia. The 
Nectarine is a variety of the same species. In recent botanies it is 
Prunus vulgaris. The Wild Plum of our own forests is Prunus 
Americana. The Gaiden Plum (P. cZt^m^s^tCa) is a native of Europe. 
The Cherries are also various species of Prunus, The Cherry Laurel 
(P. Carolinidna), a beautiful evergreen tree of the S. States, has so 
much prussic acid in its leaves and cherries as to render them 
poisonous. The seed of the Peach is poison for the same reason. 

The Blackberry {Bubus villosus) is powerfully astringent. It. stri- 
gosus is the delicious Raspberry ; R. occidentdlis, the Thimble-berry; 
R. odordtus, the Mulberry. B. spectdbilis, the Shadberry, bears the 
finest fruit in Oregon. 

The Attar of Roses, an essential oil of exceeding fragrance, is dis- 
tilled from Rosa Damascena and B. moschdta. 20,000 flowers are 



* It will now be seen that from the leaf alone, or from the smallest fragment of it, 
the place of a plant in the natiiral system of classification can be determined. It is 
the venation of the leaf that affords the criterion, and this pervades the fragment as 
well as the whole. We have now considered three diverse modes or types, which are 
severally characteristic of the three Grand Divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom. 
First, the forked- venation of the Crj^ptogams, best seen in the Ferns (p. 21). Here the 
veinlets divide and subdivide each into 2 smaller ones, which run on straight from 
center to circumference— terminating m the margin or in a fruit-cluster, never re- 
uniting when once parted. This is the simplest of all kinds of venation, and is pecu- 
liar to the simplest of all plants which rise above the purely celluhfr Mosses, where 
there are no veins at all. Second, the parallel-venation of the Flowering Endogens, 
seen in the Tulip, and the Grasses. Here the veins run parallel to each other on the 
surface, without dividing or interlacing, so that the leaf may be torn from bise to 
apex regularly along the course of any of the veins. Such an arrangement of veins, 
comparatively simple, is associated with flowers always terna'e in their parts, seeds 
always with one cotyledon in its embryo, and a stem without bark or annual woody 
layers (p. 36). Thirdly, the netted-venation of the Flowering Exogens, just studied in 
the Buttercups, and now seen in the Apple-tree. In such leaves the venation becomes 
intricate. The veins divide to infinity and their ramifications reunite as often, form- 
ing a network all through the leafy tissue, as beautifully illustrated in "skeleton 
leaves." This, the highest type of venation, is associated with the highest develop- 
ment of vegetable life— flowers many-parted, seeds \vith two cotyledons, and wood 
(if any) with bark and annual layers. 



PISUM. 117 

required to make a rupee*s weight (one-half ounce), which sells 
for $50. 

To the genus Pyrus belong the Pear Tree, Apple Tree, and Medlar. 
P. coronaria, with Howers as fine as the Rose, is our Wild Crab Tree. 

The Quince {Cyddnia vulgaris) is a native of Austria. G. japonic a.^ 
the beautiful Japan Quince, is from Japan. 

The Spireas are always conspicuous in the gardens and parks, as 
well as the Roses and Japan Quince. So also the Hawthorns and 
Mountain Ash. 

ScientiJS.c Terms,— Corymb. Double flower. Metamorphosis. 
Obcordate. Prickles. Shrub. Suspended ovula Thorns. 

XXIX. THE PEA AND ITS TRIBE. 

Description. — Of this large and important Order we 
haye no plant more characteristic than the common Garden 
Pea. It is also represented by the Sweet Pea, Wild Pea, 
Locust, and Wistaria, which may be studied in this 
connection. 

Analysis. — The pupil will answer queries like the fol- 
lowing: What is its ter?n or period of life? What is its 
habit ? * How does it climb ? What is the composition of its 
leaves ? W^hat the outline of the leaflets ? — of the stipules ? 
Has it stipels (little stipules at the base of each leaflet) ? 

2' he 2'e?idrzls. A new feature now appears. Tendrils 
are growing from the extremity of the rachis of the pinnate 
leaves, and they are themselves compound. Each tendril 
consists of 3 or more coiling threads or fibers — aids to the 
plant in climbing. f Leaves thus furnished are called cirrlions. 

The Inflorescence consists of peduncles springing from 
the axils, each bearing 2 or more white flowers. 

* Habit denotes the form, appearance, and conduct of a plant, as li would strike 
the general observer, without reference to scientific accuracy. 

t The action of a tendril looks almost like intelligence. It remains extended, and 
straight, with only a slight curve or hook at the extremity, as if blindly searching for 
some object to lean upon. If such support is not soon found, it often sweeps around 



118 



THE PEA. 



The J^ioiver is nodding, 5-parted, and irregular after a 
fashion termed papilionaceous (butterfly-shaped). There are 
5 sepals, united at the base and free above. Of the 5 petals 
(1) the upper and odd one is the largest, and in the bud 
covers all the rest. It is called the banner or vexilhim. 
The others are in pairs ; the 2 lowest being the keel petals 
{carince) ; the 2 intermediate, the wings (alee).* Of the 10 
stamens (2), 9 are united by their filaments, while the 10th 
is separate and fiue, a condition termed diadelplioiis, that is, 
in 2 sets. The pistil is one only, and that (3) 
a simple carpel with one style and stigma. The 
style is bent at a right angle, and flattened as if 
laterally, with a groove on the back and a bearded 
line in front next the free stamen, f 

The ^rnit is a legume. It is a dry pod, 
oblique in form, one-celled, 2-valved, opening at 
both its edges {suhtres) and having the seeds in 
one row along the front suture — not along both 
as in a silique (p. 101). Much is learned by a 
careful study of the legume. Open it at the 
7, a legume, front suturc. The two valves still conjoined at 
the back will represent a leaf, with seeds like buds developed 




horizontally, describing in an honr or two a complete circuit, like the free end of the 
twining stem or branch of the Morning Glory (p. 1S6). When at length the tendril, 
with the hook at its extremity, touches a twig or other object, it immediately twines 
about it, while at the same time in its middle portions it coils up on itself, as if by 
shortening its own length to draw the plant clo'=;er to its support. The mechanical 
difficulty of coiling up while fixed at both ends is overcome by its turning in opposite 
directions, causing a sharp angle where its course is reversed. This is best seen in 
the Gourd Tribe and the Grape-vine. After its hold is thus secured it grows strong 
and tough : but if it fails to reach its object it soon droops, coiis up. and perishes. 

* In the Pea tribe the banner is brightly colored so as to justify the name, since 
when expanded it cannot fail to attract insects. The lower petals are frequently 
joine'l together in one piece, forming a kind of doorstep on which the injects may 
readily alight. On their pttempting to enter the throat of the flovrer, by springing 
open the alse, the stamens beneath are liberated and are dashed with some force 
again.«t the insect's body, so as to cover it w^th pollen. 

t In the Sweet Pea, of the genus Lathyrus, the style is flattened on the back and 
in front ; and this circumstance alone separates these two genera. 



P180M. 



119 




Pig. XXIX.— Pisum sativnm : 1, th? corolla displayed ; 2, the diadelphons sta- 
mens ; 3, the ovary dissected, and the peculiar style and stigma ; 4, a seed; 5, the 
embryo with one of the cotyledons : 6, a seed germinating. 



120 THE LOCUST TREE. 

along the margins, as if a leaf were transformed into the pis^ 
til, and (like the leaf of a Begonia when planted) produced 
buds at its edges. * 

The Seed is so large (4) that it may be analyzed without 
a microscope. Eemove the testa and you find within, the 
embryo alone, as in the seed of the Apple. This consists of 

2 large cotyledons, and between them (5) a conspicuous rad- 
icle and plumule, 

Germikatio:^'. — Out of the thick cotyledons, the radi- 
cle and plumule draw their first nourishment and wake into 
life and growth. In the figure (6), the radicle has sent forth 

3 rootlets tending downward, and the plumule, a stem tipped 
with a bud tending upward. 

The Name is the ancient Latin Pisum ; P. sativum, 
that of the species, indicates that the seed is sown in 
gardens. Its native country is unknown. 

Seientifi.e Terms. — Alse. Banner. Carinae. Cirrhous leaves. 
Diadelphous. Front suture. Keel petals. Legume. Papilionaceous. 
RacMs. Stipels. Vexillum. Wing petals. 

* The fruit, as well as each organ of the flower, is a modified leaf, or leaves. The 
simple fruit, formed of a single pistil, like the achenium of the Crowfoots or the 
legume of the Pea, is a single leaf. It is folded upward so that its upper surface 
becomes the inner, and its united edges the placentae where the seeds are developed. 
In the Peach, another simple fruit, the upper skin of the leaf is transformed into the 
stone, inclosing the one seed ; the tissue into the pulp, and the lower cuticle into the 
downy, blushing rind. The furrowed line on one side of the peach marks the union 
of the two edges of the carpellary leaf. The apple is a 5-carpelled fruit formed of the 
5 united pistils. In its construction the 5 carpellary leaves are combined with the 5 
calyx leaves. The upper surface of the former becomes the parchment-lining of the 
5 cells of the core, and the tissues of them all grow into the luscious pulp. The orange 
is formed of twelve leaves, each transformed into a carpel, distinct in the pulp, but 
completely blended in the rind, while in the gooseberry the venation of the several 
leaves of which it is formed are still distinctly visible. The leaf is thus the rudiment, 
type, or pattern, whence every organ of the plant is developed, modified in color, shape, 
and structure to subserve, first, the special purposes in its own economy, and ulti- 
mately, the interests of the animal creation, and even man himself, " to whom the 
sweetness of the fruit and the beauty of the flower must have had reference in the 
gracious intuitions of Him who created them both." 



ROBINIA. 121 



XXX. THE LOCUST TREE. 

Description. ^This elegant and useful tree grows native 
in mountain forests, from tue Ohio Eiver southward, and is 
generally cultivated for timber, ornament or shade in nearly 
all the States.* In May and June, amid the general festivi- 
ties of nature, the Locust displays her pendant clusters of 
white fragrant flowers, enlivening the dark green of the 
graceful foliage. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Eegion. — The leaves are com- 
pound — of what form ? How do they differ from the leaves 
of the Eose ? What are the number, margin, outline and 
apex of the leaflets ? They are connected with the rachis by 
a short stalk — petiolules. Are there any stipules ? A pair 
of short, sharp spines occupy their place, especially in the 
younger shoots ; we may call them stipidar spines. 

The Flo wee Eegio:n". — Compare the flower of the Locust 
with that of the Pea, and notice the differences in the calyx, 
banner, wings, keel, stamens, and especially the style (3). 
Is the inflorescence centrifugal or centripetal ? It is a per- 
fect example of a raceme. Are the stamens (1, 2) diadel- 
phous ? Compare specimens of the fruit (4) which have sur- 
vived the Winter, or which ripen in September, with that of 
the Pea. Is the pod 1-carpelled or 2-carpelled ? Has the 
seed 1 or 2 cotyledons ? Any albumen ? 

Sensitiveness. — ISTote the tumid or fleshy bundles at the 
joints between the petiole and stem, and the petiolules and 
rachis. Have these any connection with the spontaneous 

* The Locust Tree attains its greatest perfection in Kentacky and Tennessee, 
where it often rises to the height of 90 feet with a diameter of 4 feet. For strength 
and durability its timber is pre-eminent, and therefore largely employed in shipbuild- 
ing, railway ties, and fence posts. As a shade tree its beauty is often marred by the 
depredation of worms, which eat at the branches until they break and fall. When 
collected in groves it seems less liable to this evil, and grows with great rapidity, often 
reaching a height of 8 or 10 feet the first season. 

6 




j2 1 

Fig XXX.-Robinia Pseudacacla : l,the calyx, stamens and pistil,or the flower 
minus 'the coroUa ; 2, the stamens displayed ; 3, the pistil with ovary dissected ; 4, 
the fruit. 122 



ROBIJSIA. 



123 



movements of the leaves for which the Locust is so remark- 
able ? When, in securing your specimen, you grasped the 
branchlet, the leaves felt and, as it were, resented the 
violence. Did you not notice how they fell forward 
toward the branchlet, while every leaflet bent forward 
and upward until each met its fellow as if in sympathetic 
embrace ? 

Similar movements occur at evening with the departure 
of the sunlight. Then not a few leaves only, but the count- 
less host on every branch bend, bow, and fold their leaflets 
face to face, and so sleep through the hours of darkness. 
When the dawn wakens the Eobin to his song, it also wakes 
the Eobinia, and her leaves with the advancing light slowly 
unfold to the sweet influences of the vital air.* 

The True Sensitive Plant {Mimosa pudica) 
is native in tropical America from the Isthmus 
to Brazil. Its flowers are collected in roundish 
heads, its fruits are legumes of a peculiar pattern 
called laments, having joints between the seeds 
(5). The leaves are twice compounded {digi- 
tate-pinnate). When expanded, they are broad 
and showy, covering th^^. plant with verdure. But 
at a touch of the finger, or the wing of a bee, they 
fold up and contract, one after another, so as 
almost to vanish from sight, f This results from a 
series of rtiotions as follows : 1st, the numerous ^' ^ loment. 
leaflets move upward and forward, twins meeting and 
together covering the i)air next before them ; 2d, the four 
divisions thus folded move toward one another as a fan 



* The leave? of our Wild Cassia?, which open their yellow flowers in August, are 
also very sensitive, closinf? their numerous leaflets when touched. 

+ At Aspinwall, the traveler, first stepping from the car into a dense green patch 
of Mimosa, is confounded at seeing the whole patch disappear, leaving the ground 
ahnost bare, acd again after a few minutes looking as verdant as ever 1 



124 



THE LOCUST TREE. 



closes ; 3d^ the whole leaf falls backward and downward 
by the joint at the base of the petiole.* 

The Name, RoHnia, was conferred in honor of John 
Kobin, herbalist to Henry IV. of France, A. D. 1620. By 
his son the Locust was first cultivated in Europe in 




5, Mimosa pudica ; 6, Desmodium gyrans. 

1640, under the popular name Acacia ; hence its specific 
name, R. pseudacacia (False Acacia). Two other species are 
native in southern forests and often seen in cultivation: 
{See Bot. (& Flor.,^.96.) 



* The Moving Plant {Desmodium gyrans) is another member of this great Order. 
It is native in India along the Ganges. In this country it is cultivated in the green- 
house. The leaves are pinnately trifoliate, consisting of a pair of very small leaflets 
placed a little below the large terminal oblong leaflet. These are wonderfully en- 
dowed with the power of spontaneous movements. Their motions are not occasioned 
by touch or irritation, but are voluntary and habitual, The small leaflets are more 
perceptibly active, moving steadily or fitfully, upward or downward or gyrating in 
circles, during the hours of sunshine. The large leaflet is quietly erect during the 
day, but slowly falls to a pendant position in the night. 



(ENOTHERA. 126 

Classification.. — The vast Order of Legumiij^os^, the 
Leguminous Plants, represented by the Pea, Locust, Cassia, 
and Mimosa, agree in having alternate, stipulate, compound 
leaves, ovary simple, fruit a legume, and seeds without albumen. 

The Leguminous Plants number not less than 400 genera and 
65C0 species, 350 species being natives of the United States. The Order 
is remarkable for the beauty of its flowers, the variety and value of its 
products. Few, if any, are poisonous. 

Among its food plants, are the Beans, Peas, Lentils, and Peanuts ; 
among its forage plants, the Clovers, Lucerns, and Carobs (called 
husks in Luke 15 : 16). 

Of gums and balsams, we have Gum Arabic, Tolu, Senegal, Kino, 
Copaiva, Tragacanth ; of drugs and dyes, Indigo, Liquorice, Catechu, 
Senna, Logwood, Camwood, Brazil wood, and others innumerable. 

The timber of the Locust tree. Laburnum, Dalbergia, and Itaka are 
highly prized in shipbuilding and cabinetwork. 

Few fruits in flavor excel the Tamarind, and the powerful perfume 
of the Tonga Bean {Dipterix odordta) is well known. 

Among its floral treasures, what element of beauty is lacking when 
we have the Wistaria, Grolden Chain, Sweet Pea, the Acacias, Poinci- 
ana, and Clianthus ? 

Scientific Terms. — Petiolules. Stipular spines. 

XXXI. THE EVENING PRIMROSE. 

Description. — A morning walk in June, through up- 
land meadows, along fence-rows, and in sunny wastes gen- 
erally, will be rewarded by the sight of the tall Evening 
Primrose, resplendent with its yellow flowers, which opened 
the night before. It is a biennial herb, 3 to 6 feet high, 
roughish, hairy, and leafy throughout. 

Analysis. — The ^oot is axial, and usually biennial, 
like the Beet bearing only leaves during the first season, 
and storing away in the thick tuberous axis a surplus of 
nutritive matter to aid the larger growth of stem, flower and 



126 THE EVENING PRIMROSE. 

fruit the tollowing year. By cultivation the tubers are im- 
proved in size and quality.* 

The SlJ77iy early the second year, rises erect and stout, 
2-6 feet hign, terete, hairy, simple at first, but at length 
widely branched like a little tree (hence often called the 
Tree Primrose). Sometimes the stem is rough, with short, 
bristly hairs. 

The Jjaaves are many, closely ranged around the stem in 
an order called alternate, but easily seen to be in a spiral 
line running from right to left (see note, p. 193). Their 
outline is lanceolate, margin finely toofhed in a manner 
called repand-dentate, like the border of a parasol. The 
lowest are petiolate, the upper sessile, and all pubescent. 

IjiJlo7'esce?ice centripetal, the lower buds opening first, 
forming a bracted spike which lengthens as the bloom 
advances upward, until, at length, there are at once fruit 
below, flowers in the midst, and buds at the top. 

The F^lowe7*s are regular, symmetrical, 4-parted. The 
calyx is the remarkable feature. It consists of a long, slen- 
der tube adhering to the ovary below, expanding into 4 
sepals at the top, where it also supports 4 broad yellow 
petals and 8 stamens, f The ovary is sessile, oblong, with a 



* The tubers contain much nutriment, and before the discovery of the Potato were 
cultivated for food. Wine-bibbers ate them after dinner, as olives are eaten, suppos- 
ing them to give greater relish to their potations. 

t Fig. XXXI, 1, re]iresenting a vertical section of the flower of Evening Primrose, 
Is worthy of careful study, It shows very plainly the nature of the adherent or supe- 
rior calyx. Now it is understood that the floral organs all issue together from the 
torus (1)— the base of the flower. Then in this flower the sepals, petals, stamens and 
pistils are fused together into one body as far upward as the top of the ovary (o). At 
this point the style (which is compounr'ed of 4) becomes free from the mass of the 
other organs, which continue in the form of a tube to the throat (e). Here the tube 
is resolved into its constituents, viz. the 4 sepals, the 4 petals, and the 8 stamens- 
all becoming free and distinct, and finally the style is also resolved into the 4 sepa- 
rate stigmas. In the related genus, Epilobinm, '•" the calyx tube is not prolonged 
above the ovary,'' but is resolved mto distinct organs, all at once, at the summit of 
the ovary. Other genera, as Circaea, are intermediate between these two, having the 
calyx tube slightly prolonged. 



(ENOTHEKA. 



127 




Fig. XXXI.— CEn6th era "biennis : 1, vertical section of a flower; 2, 8, stamens-, 
4, pollen grains ; 5, the 4 stigmas on 1 style ; 6, a capsule, 4-valved ; 7,— 4-ceJlsd ; 
8, a seed • 9, seed dissected ; 10, the 2-iobed embryo. 



128 lady's- eardrops. 

long filiform style inclosed in the calyx tube and bearing at 
the summit 4 slender, spreading stigmas. The petals are 
contorted in aestivation. The anthers are versatile — fixed 
by the middle point. The pollen grains are angular, and 
loosely connected by spidery threads. After a night of 
bloom, the flower withers, breaks from the top of the ovary, 
and falls entire. * 

The ^7'uil: is an oblong, 4-sided, 4-celled capsule, filled 
with small seeds which have no albumen. 

The Name. — (Enotliera, the title of this genus, comes 
from the Greek, meaning wine-hunter, from the notion that 
the roots cause a thirst for wine. The cuts represent 
(E, biennis (biennial), one of the many species, f 

XXXII. LADY'S EARDROPS. 

Description. — These floral gems are natives of the 
Andes from Mexico to Patagonia. They began to be known 
in Europe about A. D. 1780 — in America, 1800 ; and are 
now universally cultivated. They are smooth, tender shrubs, 
requiring protection in our winters, and are propagated by 
slips and cuttings, as they seldom ripen their seeds. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Eegiok. — The root, as we grow 

* The flowers open about seven in the evening, just at Summer twilight. The 
mode of expansion is very curious. The petals are held together at the summit by 
the hooked ends of the calyx. The segments of this flower-cup at first separate at 
the base, and the yellow petals may be seen peeping through these openings long be- 
fore the flower is fully blown. The expansion is gradual until the petals are free from 
the confinement of the hooks, but when this is effected, the flower unfolds very 
quickly for a minute or two and then stops, after which it opens gradually, spreading 
itself out quite flat. The whole process occupies half an hour, and in some cases a 
little sudden noise is made as it jerks the topmost hooks asunder. It has been stated 
by Pursh and others that this plant, when in full flower, can be seen at a great dis- 
tance, even in a dark night when all other objects are invisible, having a glow of 
bright white (see note, p. 85), as if its flowers were phosphorescent. There is evidently 
in this a reference to the visits of some night-flying moth adapted to suck its nectar 
in pay for scattering its pollen. 

+ Species 100, attaining their highest development in numbers and beauty W. of the 
Mississippi River. Their flowers are yellow, white, purple, 2', 3', or even 4' in diameter. 



FUCHSIA. 



129 




Fig. XXXn.— Fuchsia coccinia : 2, vertical section of a flower. 



the plant, is represented by adventitious fibers issuing or 
^^ striking" here and there from the lower joints of the slip 
(severed branch) which remains as planted. The stem^ 
although woody, is weak, slender, reclining, with smooth 
purplish bark and drooping branches. The leayes are 
neatly cut, smooth, pinni-yeined with reddened veins, op- 
posite, ovate, serrate and petiolate. 

The Flowers issue either singly from the axils of the 
leaves, or clustered at the end of the branches, always droop- 
ing on slender peduncles. They are regular, perfect, sym- 
metrical, 4-parted. The calyx is colored in contrast with 
the corolla, its tube inclosing, and adherent to, the ovary 
below, and opening into 4 lanceolate sepals above, bearing 
on its throat the 4 erect, convolute petals and the 8 long, 
exserted stamens. The style is free from the calyx tube. 



130 lady's eaedkops. 

twice longer than the stamens, with a capitate (head-like ; 
caputs head) stigma.* The pollen grains are angular and 
loosely webbed together as in (Enothera. Crowning the 
ovary within the calyx tube are 8 nectariferous glands. 

The jF'7"ult is a red berry, full of minute seeds, but seldom 
coming to maturity in this country. 

The KTame. — The genus Fitchsia was dedicated by Lin- 
naeus to Leonard Fuchs, a celebrated German botanist of the 
16th century. F, coccinia (Scarlet Fuchsia), with flowers 
axillary, calyx bright red, from Chili, was the earliest known 
species. Others, now common, are F, fulgens, with flowers 
clustered, calyx tube longer than its lobes, which are often 
tinged with green, and OYate, somewhat heart-shaped leayes ; 
F, microp)hylla, with small elliptical leaves, calyx funnel- 
shaped, and very sweet berries. But the species are much 
mixed by 'hylriclizatio7i,\ {Bot, and Flor,, p. 127.) 

Classification. — (Enothera and Fuchsia are members of 
the Order 0:n'agkace^ — the Onagrads. It will be seen that 
they coincide in the following points : 

Leaves simple, pinni- veined. 

Flowers perfect, symmetrical, regular. 

Calyx tubular, its lobes valvate in aestivation. 

Petals perigynous convolute in aestivation. 

Stamens perigynous, once or twice as many as tlie sepals. 

Ovary inferior (adherent), 2-4 celled, witb 1 style. 

Seeds anatropous, without albumen. 

The Onagrads comprehend 22 genera, 450 species. They are 
chiefly natives of temperate climes, and specially numerous in America. 
They are of little importance to man, except for their beautiful and 

* The arrangement of these organs seems nicely planned in favor of self-fertiliza- 
tion. But the falling pollen would seldom touch the stigmatic end of the stigma, 
where alone it would be effectual. Moreover the copious nectar implies that the help 
of some insect is still needed— some long-tongued moth or humming bird, probably, 
not found in this country. In New Zealand, a bird (Anthornis Melanura) is fre- 
quently seen with its head covered with the pollen of a native species of Fuchsia. 

t Hybrids are artificially produced by transferring the pollen of one species to the 
stigmas of another, and planting the seeds which result. 



OSMOKHIZA. 131 

sliowy flowers. Zauschnena is a genus of handsome lierbs, native of 
California, witli flowers strikingly similar to those of Fuchsia. The 
Clarkias ^ of California are proverbially beautiful. The Willow Herb 
(Epilobium augusti folium), with its showy spike of blue-purple flow- 
ers, is a tall, familiar object in the New England wilds. The Enchant- 
er's Nightshades (Circaea) are pretty little herbs of our damp woods, 
always welcome to the botanist for the charming simplicity of the 
flowers, being 2-parted throughout. 

Scientific Terms in XXXI and XXXII: xidventitious. Cap- 
itate. Repand. Slip. 



XXXIII. SWEET CICELY. 

Description. — The Cicelys grow wild from Canada to 
Carolina, and westward to Oregon. Their favorite haunts 
are in damp, rocky woods. If there be a yein of water — a 
ri\nilet half hidden under decaying leaves, oozing along 
among stones and tangled roots, there will the Cicelys stand 
luxuriating in the rich mold in company with Toothroots, 
Trilliums, White Violets and other plants which bloom in 
May and June. 

Analysis. — In the Soot, Sweet Cicely possesses qualities 
which make it favorably known. It is perennial, enduring 
the frosts of many winters. It consists of a short body or 
axis soon dividing into several long, descending branches, all 
rather fleshy, sweet-scented when bruised, and with a spicy, 
anise-like flavor. It is esteemed in medicine as a tonic and 
expectorant. 

The Stem, generally branching, arises 2 to 3 feet. The 
internodes are hollow, straight, uncommonly long, and mi- 
nutely pubescent. 



* Named for Capt. Clark of the famous Lewis & Clark's expedition, which made 
the first exploration of the Pacific Coast (1804). (See Barnes's Hundred Years of 
American Indejpendence, p. 361.) 



132 



SWEET CICELY. 



The l^eares are alternate, large, decompound — bi or tri- 
ternate (the terminal divisions pinnatifid or pinnate), the 
radical one on a long petiole, the others nearly or quite ses- 
sile, leaflets thin, ovate, pointed, incisely toothed, sparingly 
pubescent. The petioles are peculiar, being flattened or 
winged below and so embracing or sheathing the stem. 

The Z72j^orescence is in compound umbels, usually two 
together, terminating the stem and branches. Each com- 
pound umbel consists of 3 to 6 simple ones {umhellets), whose 
stalks are called rays. At the base of the umbel, are several 






Fig. XXXin.— Osmorluza longistylis : 3, the flower ; 5, the fruit ; 3, a cremocarp , 
7, a cremocarp opening, « n the carpophore ; thv. short styles of O. brevistylis : 1, 
cremocarp of Carrot ; 2, the same in a cross-section. 

(1 — 3) narrow bracts more or less leaf-like — an involucre. 
Also at the base of each umbellet, is a whorl of oblong bract- 
lets bordered with hairs {ciliate) — the involucel. 

The J^loTVers in each umbellet are about 5. l)o you 
miss the calyx ? No sepals appear ; but under the flower, at 
the top of the pedicel, is a swelling which we may regard as 
the calyx-tube adhering to, and inclosing the ovary ; while 



OSMORHIZA. 133 

the teeth (ends of the sepals), which we might expect to see 
as in the Apple flower, are obsolete or missing. The 5 small 
petals are conspicuous for their snowy whiteness. The point 
of each is abruptly inflected so as to make it appear notched 
{emarginate) at the end. There are 5 stamens, inflected like 
the petals. The two styles are prominent, slender, as long- 
as the stamens, gradually enlarged at the base into the ovary, 
or rather into a dish which crowns it. The ovary is inferior^ 
i. e., adherent to the calyx tube which incloses it, 2-carpeled, 
and 2-ovuled. 

The Fruit of this Tribe of plants is of curious structure, 
and affords the best, often the only characters for distin- 
guishing between the genera. In Cicely, its form is linear- 
oblong, with a tapering base — somewhat club-shaped, flattened 
on the sides, crowned with the 2 styles. It finally splits into 
2 carpels displaying dbforhed carpophore (p. 75) on which each 
remains awhile suspended. The carpels are nearly terete, 
the face being narrow, and the back with 3 linear, hispid 
(with short stiff hairs) riis. This form of fruit is called 
cremocarp (Gr. kremcto, I hang, karpos, fruit). 

The Name, Osmorhlza (root-scented), as well as the spe- 
cific term, 0, lo7igistylis (long-styled), given to this plant, is 
characteristic. Another kind of Cicely ( 0, irevidylis, short- 
styled), growing in similar situations, will often be found 
and mistaken for this. In the former, the styles are slender 
and as long as the stamens : in the latter, conical and thrice 
shorter ; the leaflets more pointed and pinnatifid ; the bract- 
lets long-pointed, and the root less agreeable in taste. 

Scientific Terms. — Axis of root. Carpophore. Cremocarp. De- 
compound. Emarginate. Inferior ovary. Inflected petals. Involucre. 
Involucel. Obsolete. Pubescent. Rays of umbel. Sheathing petiole. 
Umbel. Umbellet. 



134 



GOLDEi^ ALEXAiq^DERS. 



XXXIV. GOLDEN ALEXANDERS. 

Description. — The humid river-banks, the meadows be- 
hind them, and even the sunny hills above them, are fre- 
quently bedecked in June or May, with bright yellow umbels, 
which, with little discrimination, the country people call 
Golden Alexanders. We will suppose that our young bot- 
anists return from their morning rambles equipped with 
these plants complete — root, leaf, flower and fruit. 




Fig. XXXIV.— Carum aiireum : 2, a flower ; 3. a fruit with its thread-like ribs and 
elongated styles ; 4, a cross-section of the same ; 5, a fruit of Conium : 6, its cross- 
section ; 7, cross-section of a fruit of Fennel : 8, the same split into its merocarps 
t^uspended on the carpophore ; 9, a fruit of Parsnip, showing the vittae, etc. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Eegiok. — After the lesson on the 
Cicely, the student will see in this plant striking analogies, 
with special differences. Both are to be carefully noted. 
The root is perennial, axial, branching, more woody than 
fleshy, from which annually arises a plant glabrous (smooth) 
and polished. The stems throughout are jointed, branching, 
with long, hollow internodes as in Cicely. The leaves are 
ternate and biternate, the lower on long petioles and some- 



CARUM AUREUM. 135 

times pinnately 5-foliate, the very lowest being simple and 
cordate. The student will compare the leaflets with those 
of Cicely, and note their form of outline, base, apex, and 
margin. The petioles are sheathing and stem-clasping at 
the base, as in that plant. 

The Flower Eegiok. — The umbels are axillary and ter- 
minal.* Are they simple or compound-? Do you find any 
inyolucre and inyolucels ? Of what description ? The 
flowers are 5-parted. Here also the calyx consists of a tube 
adhering to the oyary, with the limb or teeth obsolete. Each 
of the 5 yellow petals has its slender point inflexed, with the 
5 stamens in like manner inflected. The ovary is inferior — 
placed below the flower and crowned by it, in consequence of 
being immersed in and adherent to the tubular calyx. The 
2 styles are slender, longer than the oyary, and deciduous, 
for they are not seen on the full-grown fruit. 

The J^rznt is a cremocarp as in Osmorhiza, but with sev- 
eral remarkable differences. It is oyal inclined to oblong, 
flattened on the sides. When the carpels separate, they show 
the forked carpophore between them. Each carpel has 5 con- 
spicuous, equal, wayy ribs, 2 of which are marginal, i. e., on 
the border of the face or commissure. In each interval be- 
tween the ribs is an oil title — an oblong cell containing a 
fragrant oil. Botanists call these oil-tubes vittce, None are 
found in the fruits of Osmorhiza. 



* Plants in which the inflorescence is arranged in a cyme, corymb, &c., may he 
termed the " Social Flowers." Small flowers thus packed closely together are neces- 
sarily more attractive to insects than if they were scattered promiscuously over the 
plant. Besides, these groups of flowers are generally placed where they are not hid- 
den by the leaves. So that one can but feel that this floral arrangement is not an 
accident, but designed for a purpose. Self-fertilization is guarded against in these 
masses of small flowers by the stamens ripening before the pistils. The former shed 
their pollen and wither before the latter have developed sufficiently to receive the 
pollen. Sir John Lubbock remarks that the honey in the flowers of this order is 
inaccessible to butterflies, whose probosces are fitted for deep-throated flowers; but 
it is easily reached by other insects. 



136 GOLDEN alexa:n^ders. 

The Name in Latin is Carum aureum. It is associated 
with Caraway {Carum Carvi) whose native country is Caria 
in Asia Minor ; hence the name. The specific term^ aureum, 
means golden. Other plants called also Golden Alexanders, 
with yellow umbels in June, may perplex the student. One 
such, C. cordatum, is smooth all oyer like C. aureum, but its 
root-leaves are generally cordate and simple, and the stem- 
leaves never biternate. 

Classification. — These examples introduce us to the 
great Order of the Umbellifee^ — the Umbel-bearing 
Plants, characterized as we have seen by the following 7 
traits : 

Stems hollow. Inflorescence in umbels. 

Leaves divided. Flowers pentandrous. 

Petioles sheathing. Ovary inferior. 

Fruit a cremocarp. 

The Umbelworts. — The 152 genera of this Order, and probably 
also the 1500 species, are distinguished by as many varying forms of 
the cremocarp. Here the fruit is flattened on the sides ; there, as 
in Parsnip, on the back, and in Coriander not flattened either 
way, but globular. Here the ribs are angular ridges ; there they 
are winged ; in Carrot they are each beset with a row of bristles. 
The ribs vary in number, from 3 to 9 ; so also the oil-tubes, being 
none in Cicely, 4 in Carum, 9 in Carrot, and 15 or more in Lovage. 
With a good microscope, the student will find these observations 
full of interest. 

The Umbelworts are chiefly natives of the North Temperate Zone in 
both Continents, and the high mountains of the Tropics. Many of them 
are adapted to special uses. As food plants, we have the Carrot, Pars- 
nip, Celery,* Parsley, Chervil. For aromatics and carminatives, we 
have the fruits of Anise, Caraway, Coriander, Dill, Cummin. As 



* The action of light upon plants Is well illustrated in the case of our Garden Cel- 
ery. The stalks are blanched by heaping earth about them so as to exclude the sun ; 
but not only is the formation of the green coloring matter (chlorophyl) thus prevented, 
but also, of the strong-odored if not poisonous substance which ordinarily renders 
this plant unwholesome. 



ANTEN"N"ARIA. 137 

drugs, Assafcetida,* Opoponax, Bdellium, Gum Galbanum, and tlie 
poisonous Conium, Cicuta, Fools-Parsley, etc., which all should know 
in. order to avoid. 

The Record. — For tablet and fig. of Cicuta, see Appendix. 
Scientific Terms. — Commissure. Vittae, 

XXXV. THE MOUSE-EAR EVERLASTING. 

Description. — These plants are among the earliest and 
oddest of the creations of Spring. On the sterile knolls of 
old pastures, and along the borders of the woods, you will 
find them already lifting their woolly heads when the grass 
first changes to green. Few plants are more unsightly, but 
being the heralds of returning Spring, the earliest represent- 
atives of the grandest of all the Orders, and moreoyer every- 
where present, they make an undeniable claim upoii our 
attention. 

Analysis. — The Hoot is perennial, and produces up- 
right flowering stems, together with prostrate runners or 
stolons like the Strawberry plant. All the herbage is whit- 
ened by a silky wool. 

The Ij eaves are thickish, smoothish above when old, 
entire ; the radical obovate or oval-spahdate (like an apothe- 
cary's spatula, or broader), petiolate; the cauline much 
smaller^ linear-oblong, sessile. On the stolons (runners, 
p. 97), the upper leaves are the larger. 

The Stems are about a span in height, and scape-like in 
consequence of the diminished upper leaves. 

The Flowers are sm^all, and collected in heads which are 
again assembled in clusters forming a dense terminal group. 
They are dioecious, that is, all staminate {$>) or sterile in 



* Assafcetida is so much relished by the Brahmins of India that they term it 
"food for the gods." 



138 



THE MOUSE-EAR EYERLASTIKG. 




Fig. XXXV.— Antennaria plnn- 
taginif olia : 6, the sterile, ?, lie 
fertile plant ; 1, a single floret ; C, 
a bristle of the pappus ; 3, a ? flo- 
ret ; 4, a section of a ? head ; 5, 
achenium with its pappus. 



one plant, and all pistillate (?) or fertile in another. The 
botanist should have both kinds in hand. 

An Involucre consisting of many bracts or scales, sur- 
rounds each head of flowers. Here the scales are scarious 
or dry, white (or brown at the base), imbricated, the outer 



AKTENISTARIA. 139 

very woolly, the inner smooth, obtuse in the sterile heads, 
acute in the fertile. 

The minute flowers^ often called florets , stand crowded 
together on the receptacle — the expanded summit of the 
short peduncle. Here the receptacle is nahed, i. e., bears no 
ahafl among the florets. The $ florets show, first, an ovary 
at the base (inferior) ; 2d, a calyx {pappus"^) consisting of 
about 30 fine white hairs crowning the ovary ; 3d, a tubular 
corolla exceedingly slender, inclosing, -ith, a style protrud- 
ing (exserted) from its summit. The $ show a slender 
abortive ovary at the base ; a pappus of 20 club-shaped, 
knobby, white bristles ; a tubular 5-toothed corolla inclosing 
5 stamens whose brown anthers are united into a tube and 
exserted. The style is rarely seen. 

Thus the fertile plants are known at sight by the longer, 
finer, whiter pappus not sprinkled with the brown dots of 
the anthers. The shorter, clubby bristles of the sterile 
pappus are curious objects under the microscope, but poorly 
contrived for wings. 

The Frtcits are each one-seeded — a sort of achenium. 
When ripe, they quit the receptacle, and, winged with their 
fine light pappus, are wafted away and scattered. For the 
abortive achenia, wings would be useless. 

The Name of this plant is Antennaria plantaginifdlia ; 
the former suggested by the resemblance of the singular 
pappus to the antennae of an insect ; the latter by the like- 
ness of the leaves to those of the Plantain. 

* From the "Ldk^n pappus, an old man, a grandfather, alluding to the white hairs. 
Comparing this fruit with the cremocarp of Cicely (p. 131), it is evident that the ovary 
is inferior., i. e. the calyx tube adheres to the ovary, and the lirrib (sepals), if any, will 
seem to stand upon it, as the corolla does. But owing to its crowded condition in the 
dense heads, the sepals develop themselves in singular forms, usually split up into 
hairs or bristles, sometimes into 5 scales, as in Ageratum, sometimes into 2 teeth, as 
in Sunflower, and sometimes wholly obsolete, as in Mayweed. Again, the top of the 
ovary grows up into a neck elevating the pappus, as in Milkweed ; or into a slender 
pedicel, as in Dandelion. 



HO THE robin's PLANTAIN". 

The Record. — Find in the Appendix a tablet and record 

of Antennaria, which will serve as a model for other plants of 

this order. 

Scientific Terms. — Dioecious. Exserted. Fertile. Florets. Im- 
bricated. Ovary Abortive. Pappus. Pistillate. Receptacle. Receptacle 
naked Scales. Scarious. Scape-like. Spatulate. Staminate. Sterile. 

XXXVI. THE ROBIN'S PLANTAIN. 

Description. — The groves and orchards are already 
vocal with the song of the Kobin when the meadows and 
copses are first bedecked with the blue rays of Robin's Plan- 
tain. In Florida beginning to fiower in March, its bloom 
progresses northward to Virginia in April, to New York in 
May, and to Canada in June, coeval with Bulbous Crowfoot, 
Rue Anemone, and Hood-leaved Violet. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Region. — Having collected an 
ample supply of specimens both with fiowers in fresh bloom 
and others well advanced towards fruit, the student will 
answer inquiries like the following : What of the life and 
form of the root ? The quality of surface or the clothing of 
the plant? The form, stature, and attitude of the stem? 
The position, arrangement, margin and venation of the 
leaves ? The leaves, as to outline, are not uniform. The 
radical are oblong -spatulate with the base narrowed toward 
a petiole and a few teeth above. The cauline are lanceolate- 
oblong, mostly entire, and with a broad-clasping base. 

The Flower Region. — The l7iflo7^esce7ice is like 
Antennaria, but more open and corymious (like a coryvfib, 
or a level-topped cluster). A few heads terminate the stem 
and branches. The first to flower is the one at the top of 
the stem, next that of the highest branch, and so on to the 
lower or outer. Thus the general inflorescence is centrifu- 
gal ; but regarding each head singly, centripetal. 



ERIGERON". 



141 




Fig. XXXVI.— Erigeron bellidif olium : 1, a ray floret; 2, its style and stigmas ; 3, a disli 
floret ; 4, its stamens ; 5, its pistil ; 6, receptacle and involucre ; 7, ripe fruit and pappus. 

The Invoticcre consists of many nearly equal scales, 
green^ linear^ pointed^ and all in one row, not imbricated (6). 
The receptacle (6) is flat, naked (no chaff among the florets) 



143 THE ROBli^'s PLAIN TAIK. 

The ^lo7*eis are very many in each head and of two 

kinds. In the circumference stand the florets of the ray, 
surrounding the florets of the disk. The former (1) are dis- 
tinguished by their ligulate corollas {ligula, a strap)^ called 
the ray. This form may be understood by comparing it 
with the tubular corollas of the disk (3). These have 5 teeth 
at the top, indicating that the tube is formed by the union 
of 5 petals.* There are also 5 (or at least 3) teeth at the tip 
of the ligules, and other marks indicating 5 united petals, 
not forming a tube, but a strap-shaped corolla — a split tube, 
lengthened and turned to one side. The rays in this species 
are of a bluish-purple color, and about 50 in number. The 
ray florets are pistillate ( ? ), the disk florets perfect ( ^ ), 
and both are fertile. The style in all bears 2 manifest 
exserted stigmas. In the disk, 5 united anthers form a tube 
around the style ; in the ray no anthers appear. In the 
figure, (4) displays the stamen tube as if unrolled ; (5), the 
style with the 2 flattened obtuse stigmas ; (2), the stigmas of 
the ray. The pappus is composed of many white, scabrous 
(rough) bristles encircling the corolla and crowning the 
(inferior) oyary 

The J^rmt (7), a sort of achenium, is more properly a 
cypsela. The 2 stigmas indicate a 2-carpelled ovary. The 
cypsela, therefore, although 1-seeded, is the product of a 
double ovary. All other achenia (e. g., Eanunculus) come 
from simple ovaries. 

The Name of this plant, Erigeron lelUdifdlium, is sin- 
gularly descriptive. The generic title signifies "hoary in 
Spring'^ {er, spring, geron, an old man) ; and the specific, 
" daisy-leaved '^ {BeUis, Daisy, folium^ leaf). 



* The term gamopetalous (gamos, union) is applied to all flowers with united 
petals. The corresponding term polypetalous designates those having the petals 
distinct, as in the plants heretofore described. 



TARAXACUM. 143 

Scientific Terms. — Corymb. Corymbous. Cypsela. Florets 

of the ray. Florets of tlie disk. Gamopetalous. Ligulate coroUd. 
Polypetalous. Rays. Scabrous. Tubular corolla. 



XXXVII. THE DANDELION. 

Dear cotmnon Jiower^ that growest beside the way^ 

Fringing the dusty road with harmless goldy 
Tis the Springes largess which she scatters now. 

LOWELU 

Description. — There are animals which shun the sayage 
haunts of the wilderness, and with determined choice seek 
the habitations of man. So there are plants, foreigners 
mostly, such as the Plantain, Pigweed, and Dandelion, which 
flourish only or chiefly around human dwellings. Early and 
late, in Spring, Summer and Autumn, the golden discs of 
the Dandelion develop from the manipulated soil of the 
gardens, fields, and fence-rows. Other plants we may value 
for their rarity ; but this delights us for its very common- 
ness, and the associations of childhood which linger about it.-"^ 

Analysis. — The Leaf Eegiok. — Here we have an acau" 
lescent plant — a plant with no visible proper stem. The 
leaves and flower-stalks rise directly from the top of the 
strong, axial, fleshy, perennial root. A milky white Juice 
pervades the whole plant, exuding from the root, leaves, 
flowers, wherever bruised or broken. This juice contains 
caoutchouc, but no opium. The leaves differ m pattern 
from any hitherto described. All are radical, and oblong in 
their general outline, with the margins cut into prominent 
lobes and teeth which are inclined backward—a form called 
runcinate (re-uncinate, or hooked backward). 

* Besides the uses of the Dandelion for the bee, butterfly, and childhood, and the 
measant memories it brings to age, it serves other purposes. The young leaves when 
blanched are esteemed in France as an excellent salad. The green growing leaves are 
used generally as a pot-herb. The root is a valuable remedial agent. 




Fio. XXXVn.— Taraxacum Dens-leSnis : 1, a floret; 2, the stamens nnrolled; 3. fcbe 
receptacle, and involucre ; 4, a fruit (cypsela) ; 5, a fruit with its pappus. 



TARAXACUM. 145 

The Flower Eegion. — The inflorescence is also radical. 
From the crown of the root seyeral naked, hollow scapes 
arise, each bearing an involucrate head of flowers analogous 
to, yet strikingly different from, those of Antennaria or 
Erigeron. In the former, the heads are discoid, being wholly 
destitute of rays or ligulate corollas ; in the latter radiate, 
haying the outer row of florets ligulate. In Dandelion they 
are radiant — with all the florets ligulate. 

The Involucre is said to be double, consisting of 2 rows 
of scales, the outer ones shorter and reflexed, the inner, linear 
and erect. The receptacle (3) is quite naked of chaff.* 

TLe I^lorets are all fertile and perfect — each consisting 

(1) of an oblong ovary crowned with a yellow, ligulate corolla 
and a pappus of soft white bristles. The ligule is 5-toothed, 
indicating 5 united petals. The 5 anthers form a tube inclos- 
ing the style, which divides at the top in 2 spreading or rey- 
olute stigmas. The anther tube is represented in the cut 

(2) as if unrolled, f 

The I^ruit. After flowering, the involucre closes upon 
the withering corollas while the fruit is growing. The tips 
of the ovaries grow into slender leaTcs raising the pappus, 
while the scape lengthens, elevating the whole head. At 
length, when all is ripe, the involucre again opens, the pap- 
pus expands into an airy balloon, and soon the cypselas 
(4 and 5), thus admirably fledged, are borne away on the 
wind and scattered far and wide. But this is not the end of 

* In Sunflower, Coreopsis, and other plants of this Order, the receptacle bears with 
each floret a bractlet (called a 'pcle or chaff). Hence *' receptacle chaffy " is the coun- 
terpart of "receptacle naked." 

t In fair weather the florets are expanded and very conspicuous to insects. In rain 
and by night they are closed, protecting the nectar from waste. The nectar is abun- 
dant, rising high in the tubes of the florets and accessible to numerous insects. Mliller 
observed the visits of 93 species. It is scarcely possible that the stigmas should 
escape pollenization in this way ; but to make sure of it, they continue to recoil until 
they reach the pollen for themselves. *' The brightness of its color, the quantity of 
its honey, the habit of closing in unfavorable weather, and the power of self-fertili- 
zation, go far to explain the great abundance of the Dandelion."— yiSir J. Lubbock, 
7 



146 THE dakdelio:n. 

providential care. The cypsela (4) is pointed and bearded 
so that when it alights^ its pappus still moving to and fro, 
it works its way into the ground and thus plants itself. * 

The Name^ Dandelion, is a corruption of the French 
dent'de-Uoiiy from a fancied resemblance of its jagged leaves 
to the teeth of a lion. The scientific name, Taraxacum 
Dens-leonis {taraxacum^ disturbance, dens4eonis, lion's tooth) 
refers to this common notion, and its medicinal efEect. 

Classification. — This plant, with the two foregoing, 
introduces us to the great Order of the Asterworts, called 
Composite as the flowers are apparently compound. They 
agree with one another and with the whole Order in these 
seven characteristics : 

1. Flowers collected in involucrate heads. 

2. Calyx limb (if any) a dry pappus crowning the ovary. 

3. Corolla of 5 united petals (gamopetalous). 

4. Stamens 5, united by their anthers into a tube. 

5. Stigmas 2, with their styles consolidated into one. 

6. Ovary inferior, 1-ovuled, a cypsela in fruit. 

7. Seed with no albumen. 

The Asterworts embrace 766 genera and 9000 species, growing 
in all climates and countries, amounting to about one-tenth of the 
Flowering Plants of the Globe. Over 600 species are natives of the 

* Thus the Dandelion enters the great " struggle for existence " with seeming ad- 
vantages, but none too many. Its rivals are a legion, each in its own way armed for the 
strife— a contest more active than ever was waged on any human battle-field, renewed 
every Spring time in. the bosom of the quiet woodland and i)eaceful meadow. The 
ground is densely packed with seeds which were strown the previous Autumn, or 
have been lying dormant, abiding their time, perhaps for years. There is room for 
only one seed to develop in a spot where there are hundreds of candidates. The sun- 
shine and heat stimulate them to germination, and then begins the fierce struggle for 
survival— a contest that knows no pause or cessation until the fittest have conquered 
and the rest have succumbed. It is literally a death-struggle. No pity is siiown for 
the weak, no regard for the beautiful. 

Nowhere is this life-struggle so reckless as amid the exuberance of a tropical 
forest. "There," says Orton, " the dense dome of green overhead is supported by 
crowded columns, often branchless for 80 feet. Individual struggles with indi\idual, 
and species with species, to monopolize the air, the sun, and the soil. In their efforts 
to spread their roots, some of the weaker sort, unable to find a footing, climb a power- 
ful neighbor and let their roots dangle in the air, while many a full-grown tree has 
been lifted up, as it were, in the strife, and now stands on the ends of its stilt-Uko 
roots so that a man may walk under the trunk between them." 



GAULTHERIA. 147 

United States. Conspicuous among them are the autumnal hosts of 
blue and white Asters and yellow Goldenrods {SoUddgo), the troops of 
Sunflowers {Helidnthus) and the armies of Thistles (Cnicus). Our 
Composites are nearly all herbs ; in Chili, they are mostly bushes ; in 
the Island of St. Helena, they are trees. 

Compared with its vast extent, the useful products of this Order 
are few and unimportant. Lettuce is the herbage of Lactuca 
satlva. Salsify is the root of Tragopdgon jporrifolius. Chickory, used 
with Coffee, is the roasted root of Cichorium Intybus. Saffron, a 
yellow dye, is the dried flowers of CdrtJiamus tinctdrius. Camomile 
{Anthemis nohilis), Elecampane {Inula), Arnica (J., montdna), are pop- 
ular remedies. The well-known Persian Insect Powder is the dried 
and pulverized heads of OJirysdnthemum rhseum. Wormwood, used in 
making the French liquor absinthe, is a species of Artemisia. 

In the flower garden this great Order is also well represented by the 
showy China Asters, Zinnias, and Dahlias, which sport into varieties 
infinite. The Feverfue {Parthenium), the Marigolds {Tagetes) and 
Coreopsis, are old favorites. The Everlastings or Immortelles are 
becoming common. Last, but not least, the lovely Ghrysdnthema, in 
purple, yellow, and glowing white, when all other leaves are falling 
and other flowers are dead.* 

Scientific Terms. — Acaulescent. Achenium or Cypsela beaked. 
Heads discoid. Heads radiant. Heads radiate. Receptacle chaffy. 
Receptacle naked. Runcinate. 

XXXVIIl. THE CHECKERBERRY. 

Description. — The many names of this little plant, as 
with the Garden Violet, is a proof of its popularity. In dif- 
ferent places it is known as Checkerberry, Boxberry, Tea- 
berry, Ivory Plum, Partridge-berry, Wintergreen. f The 

* *'And it is told in stories old that this fair blossom first 

On that blest morn, when Christ was born, into white beauty burst. 
Perhaps— ah ! well, we cannot tell if truly it be so ; 
I but repeat the legend sweet, and only this I know- 
That in the prime of Christmas-time the Christ's sweet flowers blow." 
t We adopt the first-mentioned name, for so it was known to our childhood. But 
since these appellations are merely local, and some of them are equally applied to 
other plants, the necessity of an invariable scientific name is manifest. 



148 



THE CHECKERBERRY. 



Checkerberry grows in old woods and pastures, particularly 
where Pines and Hemlocks have abounded, always avoiding 
alluvial or limestone soil. In Winter and early Spring, it 
appears arrayed in the dark evergreen leaves and bright red 
berries of the preceding year. In April and May, it puts 
forth new leaves which are of a livelier green, and tender. 





Fig. XXXVm— Gaulthdria prociimbens : 
2, a flower, natural size ; 3, a fruit ; 4, ver- 
tical section of the fruit ; 5, a 2-horned 
anther of a Vaccinium (Blueberry) ; 6, a 
stamen of Arctostaphylus (Bearberry) ; 7, a 
2-awned stamen of a Vaccinium ; 8, Pyrola 
secunda ; 9, a flower, natural size ; 10, a 
stamen showing the terminal tubes and 
pores ; 11, cross-section of the 6-celled, 
many-seeded capsule. 



with their well-known spicy fragrance and taste. In May, 
June, or July, according to the locality, you will find it in 
flower, and in October its fruit will again be perfected. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Eegion. — With complete speci- 
mens in hand, the learner will carefully distinguish between 
root and stem. Is it O or 2^ ? The stem proper, or the 
main stem, is a prostrate creeper generally concealed. At 



GAULTHERIA. 149 

intervals it sends up branches 2' or 3' high, which the learner 
at first sight might take for distinct, independent stems. 
The leaves — define their venation, i orm of outline^ quali- 
ties of surface, texture, taste, &c. 

The Flower Eegiok. — The J^lon'ers present us with a 
new pattern. The white wax-like corolla is a short tube, 
5-toothed and slightly contracted at the mouth — a form 
called urceolate (urn-shaped). Note the position, attitude, 
and length of the flowers and their peduncles. Compare the 
calyx with the corolla ; note their difference in life, form, 
size, and fail not to observe the 2 bractlets subtending all. 
ISTote the number of the stamens, and the form of the anther. 
Each of its 2 cells bears an awn at its tip, and a terminal 
pore for the discharge of its pollen. 

The ovary — is it superior ? How many cells has it ? How 
many ovules in each cell ? How many styles ? The micro- 
scope will reveal all this. 

The ^ruit. If the pupil has been fortunate in securing 
fruit, relic of the former year, new surprises await him in its 
analysis. As a whole it is globular. At the top appears a 
little globe within a globe, surrounded by 5 large teeth. Now 
with a sharp blade divide the fruit perpendicularly and study 
the section. There is a 5-celled capsule enveloped in (but 
free from) the enlarged fleshy calyx which contains the pulpy 
portion of the berry. 

The Name. — This plant was first noticed in Canada by 
Dr. Gaulthier of Quebec. In his honor it received the generic 
name Gaultlieria, conferred by Prof. Kalm, of Sweden. Its 
specific name, G, procumiens, alludes to its habit of growth. 
Another species, G. Sliallon^ a bush with similar fruit, but 
Uach, and the delight of the bears, grows in Oregon. 

Scientific Terms. — Urceolate corolla. 



150 



THE PYROLAS. 



XXXIX THE PYROLAS. 

Description. — There are five or six species of these ele- 
gant plants growing in the woods of the Northern States, 
Canada, and southward along the mountains. One or all 
of them may fall in the way of the col- 
lector, the flowers in June or July, the 
fruit in September. The dry stalks of 
the last season with empty pods (better 
than none) should be collected with the 
flowers. 
Analysis.— We now adopt a new 





Fig. XXXIX.— Pyrola rotundifdlia : 2, section of a flower bud showing the anthers 
inverted ; 3, section of a flower ; 4, 5, stamens — anthers erect. 



method of analysis. We direct attention, 1st, to such char- 
acters as apply equally to all the species of a genus, i. e., 
the generic characters. These are mainly but not entirely 



PYKOLA. 151 

found in the flowers and fruit ; 2d, to those which apply to 
one species only and serve to distinguish it from all the other 
members of the genus. They are taken from any part, but 
chiefly from the leaf region. 

1. Ge:n^eeic Chaeactees. — The Pyrolas are smooth, 
nearly acaulescent, perennial herbs. Both roots and stem are 
mostly subterranean. The former are brown fibers spring- 
ing here and there from the joints of the stem. An under- 
ground shoot or runner arising from^ the base of the last 
year's plant, becomes the stem of this year's plant, and 
so on. 

The Z/eaves are entire, petiolate, and nearly radical. 

The l7iflorescence is a scape with a few bracts, and a 
simple raceme. 

The J^lowers are complete, 5-parted, symmetrical, one- 
colored, nodding. The sepals are 5, united at the base, per- 
sistent. The petals are 5, larger, concaye, converging (not 
wide-spread), scarcely united at the base, deciduous. The 10 
stamens are peculiar in form and behayior. The large ob- 
long anthers (4, 5) are attached to the top of the filament 
near their own apex, where they open by 2 (or 4) pores. In 
the bud (2) they are seen inverted, but become erect with 
their pores upward as the flower expands. A vertical sec- 
tion (3) displays the structure and arrangement of the floral 
organs. 

The Style is one, compounded of 5 united, with 5 stigmas 
at the top. The superior ovary becomes in fruit a globous- 
depressed, 5-lobed, 5-celled capsule, opening upward from 
the bottom by 5 valves. The seeds are innumerable and very 
minute. 

2. Specific Chaeactees. — We have the portrait of a 
common species, and assume that the learner has specimens 
before him. The few leaves are quite radical, thick and 



152 prince's pine. 

shining, orbicular (round) or round-oyate, shorter than their 
dilated petioles. The scape is 6-12' high^ 6-12-flowered, 
bracted. The calyx lobes ovate ; the petals round-obovate, 
nearly white. Style clavate, twice bent downward, longer 
than the petals which are thrice longer than the sepals. 

The Name, in Latin as in English, is Pyrola, a diminu- 
tive of Pyrus, the Pear-tree ; because of the resemblance of 
the leaves, whence it is also called, Pear Wintergreen. The 
species here figured and described is P. rotundifoUa, the 
round-leaved. 

Another species, P. elUpiica, has elliptical and oval leaves, 
thinner in texture, scape bractless, and sepals very short. 
The learner may also have found P. secimda (Pig. XXXVIII, 
8), which has the flowers of its raceme all turned one side, \x 
straight style, serrulate leaves not all radical, and other dif- 
ferences which are easily noted. * 

Seientifi.C Terms. — Clavate. Converging petals. Generic char 
acters. Orbicular. Specific characters. Vertical section. 

XL PRINCE'S PINE. 

Description. — In the same woodlands where the Pyrolas 
grow, or in the drier portions of them, you may also detect 
the Prince's Pine, or, as it is called in the Indian tongue, 
Pipsissewa. The affinities of this comely plant with the 

* In the States E. of the Mississippi Eiver, 6 species of Pyrola are known, and ana- 
lytically distinguished in Wood's Object Lessons as follows : 
§ Stamens ascending, style declined and curved., .a. 
§ Stamens and style straight and erect. . .Nos. 5, 6. 

a Leaves thick and shining. Flowers white or rose-colored, Nos. 1, 2. 

a Leaves green, not shining. Flowers greenish- white, Nos. 3, 4. 

1 P. rotundifolia. Bound-leaved P. Leaves orbicular. Mostly white petals. 

2 P. asarifolia. Heart-leaved P. Leaves round-cordate. Rose-colored petals. 

3 P. elliptica. Pear-leaved P. Leaves large, thin, elliptical. Scape bractlesfe* 

4 P. chlorantha. Green-Jl. P. Leaves small, thick, roundish, shorter than petioiea 

5 P. secunda. One-sided P. Raceme with the green-white flowers all on one side. 

6 P. minor. Lesser P. Raceme spike-form, with small, globular, white flowers. 



CHIMAPHILA. 



153 




Fig. XL.— Chimaphila nmbellata : 1, section of a flower ; 2, 3, stamens ; 4, crosa* 
section of ovary ; 6, the ovary ; 5, capsule opening by chinks above. 



154 



pbikce's pike. 



Pyrolas is evident at sight. Its study will therefore be a 
comparative analysis^ in which both its resemblances and 
differences will appear. 

Analysis, — 1. Genekic Char- 
ACTERS. — The Prince's Pines are 
small, suffruticoiis {sub, under, or 
partly, frutex, a shrub ; i. e., half- 
shrubby) plants. Their stems orig- 
inate from long subterranean run- 
ners like the Pyrolas, with leaves 
evergreen, thick, shining, verticil- 
late (whorled) or scattered in the 
midst of the stem. The inflores- 
cence is a terminal umbel on a long 
peduncle, with flowers flesh-colored, 
5-parted, The» calyx is 5-lobed, 
and the corolla of 5 concave, or- 
bicular, wide-spread petals. There 
are ten 2-horned anthers, opening 
by 2 terminal pores ; filaments (21, 3) 
broad in the middle ; style (6) very 
short; stigma broad, disk-form. 
The capsule (5, 4) is depressed, 
globular, 5-celled, 5-valved, opening from the top. 

2. Specific Characters. — The specimens in hand may 
be of the kind commonly known at the North as Pipsissewa 
(see Fig. XL) and esteemed for its tonic and diuretic proper- 
ties. This plant stands 6-10' high on a base curving up- 
ward. The leaves are in 2 or 3 whorls of 3s and 5s, 
oblanceolate, narrowed to the base, sharply serrate, uni- 
formly dark-green. The peduncle is 2-4', and sustains an 
umbel of 4-7 flowers. 

The Name, C1ii7ndphila (winter-loving) umbelldta (um- 




7, Chimaphila maculata. 



KALMIA. 155 

bellate) is appropriate to the habit of Prince's Pine^- it 
being an umbel-bearing evergreen. A second species — C. 
maculata (Spotted Chimaphila, Fig. XL, 7) grows in similar 
localities, especially southward. It is known by the white 
variegations of the lanceolate, remotely serrate leaves. Sooner 
or later the diligent collector is sure to find it and record its 
analysis. 

XLI. THE KALMIAS, OR AMERICAN LAURELS. 

Description. — In the woods of the Atlantic States from 
Maine to Georgia and westward to Wisconsin and Kentucky, 
grow the American Laurels, adorned in the months of May 
and June in their magnificent bloom. Five species are 
known to the botanist, flowering simultaneously, and there- 
fore, possibly, all or several in the box of the collector. Let 
us first notice their points of agreement, that is, their — 

3. Gekeeig Ohaeacteks. These are evergreen shrubs, 
with coriaceous, entire leaves, with raceme-like corymbs 
(level-topped clusters) of showy white or red flowers, all 
5-parted, gamopetalous and complete. The 5 sepals cohere 
only at base, the 5 petals are united quite to the top into a 
saucer-shaped, 5-lobed corolla larger than the calyx, having 
10 pits or sacks in which the 10 anthers are lodged. The 
filaments are long, slender, elastic and recurved. Style 1, 
slender. Fruit a globular capsule, 5-celled, oo -seeded. 

The Name. — Plants possessing these attributes consti- 
tute a genus named Kdlmia, in honor of Kalm, a Swedish 
botanist who traveled in America about 1750. 

2. Specific Chakacters of the Broad-leaved Kalmia {K. 
latifdlia), often called the Calico Bush. It is a shrub with 
crooked stems and branches, 5-15 feet high, with leaves 
mostly alternate, smooth, bright green on both sides, ellip- 



156 



THE KALMIAS. 




Fig. XLI.— Kalmialatifdlia: c, a flower natural size; 5, a growing ovary, with its style. 

tical^ acute at each end^ supported on short petioles. Its 
flowers are in large terminal corymbs, yiscid-pubescent, 
white varying to rose-color. 

The other species are shrublets 1-3 feet in height. The 



KALMIA. 157 

learner will recognize their generic characters in the sketch 
already given, and write in his Plant Record the distinguish- 
ing specific characters of each as he finds them. Their 
names are as follows : 

K. angustifdlla, the narrow-leaved, called Sheep-poison, with oppo- 
site leaves and lateral umbels. 
^K. cuneidta, the wedge-shaped-leaved, growing South. 
K. glaicca, the glaucous or sea-green ; with 2-edged twigs. 
K. hirsilta, the hairy ; with very small leaves. South. 

^oUenizaiion. The curious action of the stamens in 
these plants is worthy of special attention. When the flower 
first opens, the stamens are confined with their anthers in as 
many little pockets of the corolla, and consequently the elas- 
tic filaments bend backward away from the style, which stands 
erect in their midst. The anther containing the pollen grains 
has, like the Pyrolas, 3 porous openings at the top. A touch 
or sudden jar will liberate the anthers, when they instantly 
rebound against the style, discharging their pollen toward 
the stigma.* 

Classification. — The genus Kalmia, with the three pre- 
ceding, represent the large and interesting Order of the 
Heathworts, or ERiCACE^.f They are not homogeneous, like 

* It has been observed that the stamens do not spontaneously free themselves, but 
await some external force, as a gust of wind, a falling twig, or rain-drop. But the 
special agent in this service is the bee in quest of honey. The rustling of its wings, the 
thrusting its proboscis into the cavity at the base of the stamens where the nectar is 
secreted, sets them free. In this case the pollen shot from the rebounding stamens 
will be discharged upon the body of the insect, and thus carried to the stigma of the 
next flower which it may visit. 

The thoughtful student will here Inquire, *' Why must the pollen be lodged upon 
the stigma at all ? "—a question which we are preparing to answer. 

t The Order takes its name from its principal genus, Erica, the Heaths or Heath- 
ers, a genus of not fewer than 400 species of delicate evergreen shrubs, with small 
narrow leaves and 4-parted gamopetalous flowers, natives of Europe and S. Africa. 
In Scotland, the luxuriant Heather is a characteristic feature of the landscape. It covers 
wide tracts of country so closely as to prevent all other vegetation, and often grows 
high enough to hide a man standing erect. Different species are the badges of different 
families, and a plant that is so serviceable is well worthy of being a Highland badge. 
Many a mountaineer sleeps on a couch of Heather boughs ; makes his cabin of 
Heather and a mortar of straw and earth ; thatches his roof with Heather, which 
he binds down with a rope of twisted Heather ; and bums for his only fuel the 



158 THE PITCHER PLANT. 

the ComiDositae, yet nearly all the genera agree in the follow- 
ing seven characters. 

Leaves simple, without stipules. 

Flowers perfect, complete, regular. 

Petals 4, 5, rarely more, united or not. 

Stamens as many or twice as many, free and distinct. 

Anthers 3-celled, opening by 2 terminal pores. 

Style 1 witli a 4-10-celled ovary. 

Embryo small, in fleshy albumen. 

The Heathworts comprehend 61 genera, 1330 species, chiefly 
natives of S. Africa, where they cover vast tracts of country, and 
America, both N. and S. Some of them are the most beautiful of 
plants, as the x\zalias, Rhododendrons, and Heaths (Erica). 

Our Blueberries, so delicious and healthful, are the fruit of the 
various species of Yaccinium. Our Whortleberries or Huckleberries, 
of Gaylussdcia (dedicated to the French chemist. Gay Lussac). Our 
Cranberries, of Oxycoccus. 

The Oil of Wintergreen is distilled from the young leaves of Gaul- 
theria jprocwribens. The diuretic medicine, Uva-ursi, is the leaves of 
Arctostdphylus Uva-ursi, The exquisitely fragrant Mayflower, or 
Trailing Arbutus, is Ejpigea repens. 



XLII. THE PITCHER PLANT. 

Description. — In peat bogs and fresh marshes through- 
out the country, the Pitcher Plant may be sought. It is 
everywhere an object of curiosity and wonder. Eight or 
ten different forms occur, but the flowers in all are exactly 
similar, except perhaps in color. The species most generally 
accessible is delineated in Fig. XLII. 

Analysis. — G-ekekic Chaeacteks. — The habit of these 
plants is acaulescent, with perennial fibrous roots, leaves 

Heather-peat. The Heather sprays and blossoms are eaten by grouse and by sheep 
in a time of scarcity; while the "Heather-bell, with her pui'ple bloom," is a booc 
tobea^. 



SAKRAUENIA. 



159 




hollow and containing water. 
The flowers, one or more, 5- 
parted, perfect and complete, 
are large, solitary, mounted and 
nodding on a naked scape. 

The calyx consists of 5 oyate, 
spreading, colored sepals subtended by 3 bractlets. The 
corolla is of 5 oboyate, incurved petals coyering the broad 
style, and the many hypogynous stamens. 

The oyary is glabrous, 5-carpelled, 5-celled ; the style 
short, expanding at the top into a broad umbrella-shaped or 
peltate (i. e., shield-shaped) membrane, bearing the 5 stigmas 
in the notches of the 5 rhombic lobes. The matured fruit is 
a capsule with 5 cells opening by 5 yalyes, haying the pla- 
centae in the axis, or inner angle of the cells. The seeds are 
numerous, anatropous, with a small embryo in much albumen. 



160 



THE PITCHER PLANT. 





2, a flower seen be- 
neath; 3, a flower seen 
above ; 4, the stamens 
and pistil ; 5, Sarra- 
cenia psittacina ; 6, 
P. Drnmm6ndii, leaves 
only. 



Specific Characters. — We have before us (Eig. XLII, 
1) the only northern species, distinguished from the others 
by the leaves alone. These are in the form of a pitcher, 6-9' 



-;^i^>^^( 




long, broadest near the mid- 
dle, as a pitcher should be, 
ascending, incurved, open, 
bearing a broad wing along 
the whole length on the inner 
side, and at the top an erect 
cordate, hood-like blade. The 
hood and much of the tube 
below is beset within by stiff, 
sharp, reversed bristles. The 
capacity is about half a wine- 
glass, and the pitcher is generally filled with water containing 
drowned insects. The flowers are deep brownish purple, 2-3' 
broad, on a scape about 1 foot high. 

The Name of this genus is Sarracenia, conferred in honor 
of Dr, Sarrazen of Quebec, who first sent it to Europe in 1640. 
The specific name, imrpurea, is unfortunate ; for its flowers 
are sometimes yellow, and other species have purple flowers. 
The Order Sarrace:n'iace^, the Pitcher Plants, includes 
3 genera, viz., Sarracenia, Heliamphora of Guiana, and Dar- 
lingtonia of California. All the species (9 or 10) are dis- 



7, Dionsea muscipula, or Venus's Fly- 
trap : Leaves only. 



DODECATnEOK. 161 

tinguished for having ascidia, that is, leaves which hold 
water like pitchers, and are probably alike carnivorous. 

Carkivorous Plants. — One of the most wonderful 
results of recent botanical investigation is to show that 
certain plants are expressly contrived to entrap and digest 
insects, and are therefore carnivorous in habit. In Sarra- 
cenia the glistening water at the bottom of the pitche/s and 
the sweet secretion on the leaf are fitted to entice inquisi- 
tive flies, etc., to alight. Then, the reversed bristles facili- 
tate their entrance, but forbid their return. Finally, the 
inner surface of the tube secretes a fluid capable of digest- 
ing the animal matter and probably also of assimilating it 
for the growth of the plant.* 



XLIII. THE AMERICAN COWSLIP. 

Description. — This notable plant adorns our woods and 
prairies, in May and June, from Pennsylvania westward; 
but at the approach of the ploughman it flees to the v/ilder- 
ness unless enticed by the gentler arts of the gardener. Its 
numerous names, as Pride-of-Ohio, Shooting-Star, Dodeca- 
theon, are its titles of nobility ; and its aspect, acaulescent 
like Pyrola and Sarracenia, with a radical crown of leaves 



* Among the other carnivorous plants are Venus*s Fly Trap (Dioncea nmscipula^ 
native of N. Carolina), the Sundew {Brosera)^ and the East Indian Pitcher Plant 
{Nepenthes). In the first named (Fig. XLII, 7) there Is a curious trap at the end of 
the leaf. Along the edges are rows of bristles which have been aptly compared to 
the eye-lashes. On each side within are three more exceedingly sensitive hairs. If 
one of these be touched by an insect crawling over the leaf, the two sides will 
instantly shut upon the hapless prisoner, the fringe on the edge interlacing like the 
fingers of the two clasped hands. The fluid secreted by the leaf immediately flows 
out, apparently to aid in the digestion of the animal food thus ingeniously caught. 
This natural trap may be sprung by dropping into it a piece of meat. In the Dar- 
lingtonia there is a bait — an appendage smeared on th« inside with honey — hanging 
at the entrance of the tube, enticing insects to go within. 



162 



THE AMERICAiq^ COWSLIP. 



and a naked columnar scape supporting an involucrate um- 
bel, is the ideal of floral grace and beauty. 

The fashion of the Flowers is like that of the garden 
Cyclamen, otherwise unique, suggesting the thought of a 
shooting star or a bird on the wing. This effect is due to the 
white petals so sharply re- 
flexed, while the stamens and 
style project forward in the 
form of a parti-colored beak 
or an arrow-head. * 

Analysis. — The Leaf 
Eegiok. — The root is a dense 






Fig. XLTTI.— Dodecatheon Meadia: 2, a flower with pistil undeveloped; 3, a flower, 
full size, with the pistil ; 4, dissection, showing the free-central placenta, &c. ; 5, the 
pyxis of Anagallis ; 6, the plan of the flower. 

mass of branching fibers issuing from the perennial crown, 
and striking deep into the soil. The stem (the crown 
already mentioned) is wholly subterranean, and destitute of 



* In the Dodecatheon we find two types of flower (dimorphism). In some the pis- 
til is long and flush with the throat of the corolla, and the stamens are fixed half way 
do^^-n the sides ; in others, the pistil is short and the stamens are attached to the throat 
of the corolla. One foiin has thus the pistil where the other has the stamens. This 
was long thought to he a mere freak of nature ; but it is now known to be another 



DODECATHEOIT. 163 

any definite form. The leaves, sheathing the scape at the 
base and springing with it from the crown {radical), are 
oblong, obtuse, nearly entire, and smooth. The inflores- 
cence is an nmbel. 

The Flower Eegio^^. — The Flowers are 5-parted (y^), 
complete, perfect, regular, symmetrical, gamopetalous (al- 
though the petals are almost separate). What of the calyx ? 
Wliat of the stamens ? Here is an arrangement like that in 
Claytonia (p. 41). The 5 stamens stand opposite to {oppos- 
ing) the 5 petals. The slender anthers are coninyent in a 
slender cone inclosing the thread-like style. The oyary and 
fruit are superior, 1-celled. The many ( oo ) seeds are 
affixed to a central erect column — that is, to a free central 
placenta. Is the ovary simple or compound ? Probably 
compounded of 5 carpels, since the other organs are in 5s. 
But the fusion is so intimate as to leave no trace of the 
seams, lobes, or cells ; nor does the style or stigma give any 
indications. This is extraordinary. Compare the triple 
pistil and capsule of Erythronium (p. 32). 

The Name, Dodecdtheon {dodeha, twelve, tJieoi, gods) 
was conferred by Linnaeus as if the flowers (about 12 in 
number) were so many little divinities — a poetic fancy not 
unworthy of the great naturalist. D, Meddia, the specific 
name given by Catesby, in honor of Dr. Mead, the dis- 
coverer, was originally intended for the genus. 

Scientific Terms,— Free central placenta. Opposing stamens. 



conti'ivance to secure crossing. An insect lighting upon a short-styled flower would 
naturally dust its head with pollen from the stamens clustered about the mouth of the 
tube ; on going to a long-styled flower, its head, covered with pollen, would at once 
come in contact with the sticky pistil at the opening of the throat ; and xice versa^ 
pollen would in the same way be carried from a long-styled flower to fertilize a short- 
styled one. — It is- curious to note also how the flower is, so to speak, " made the most 
of" in the floral competition for insect services by a simnle contrivance. The corolla 
being deeply cleft and each petal beat backward, brings every part of the surface into 
conspicuous notice. 



164 



CHICK AVINTERGREEK. 



XLIV. CHICK WINTERGREEN, 

Description. — Dodecatheon is often cultiyated in the 
gardens of New England and New York^ but is never native 
in those States. Its place is there occupied by the pretty 




Fig. XLIV.— Trient^lis Americana : 1, a flower ; 2, the seeds heaped on the free 
central placenta. 



LYSIMACHIA. 165 

Chick Wintergreen or Star-flower^ growing in the cool, damp 
woods. No flower in May and June is more lovingly greeted. 

Analysis. — The 7-fold division of the floral organs is 
the most striking feature of this flower. It is seen in the 
petals, sepals, stamens, and even in the leaves, and probably 
it exists also in the pistil and fruit. The 7 white, slightly 
gamopetalous, wide-spread petals, form a wheel- or star- 
shaped corolla, and the 7 stamens stand opposing them. 
The ovary as well as the style is one, and in fruit becomes a 
1-celled capsule with about 7 seeds on a free central placenta. 

The Name, Trientdlis {triens, the third part of a foot) 
Americana, alludes both to the height of the plant and to 
its native country.* 



XLV. THE LOOSESTRIFES. 

Description. — There are many kinds of Loosestrife scat- 
tered over the country, blooming in June and later. Some 
choose a gravelly soil, in the borders of woods and thickets. 
An English writer says, " growing in damp woods, hanging 
down the sides of mossy slopes, its branches trailing a foot 
or more long, well clad with roundish, shining, deep-green 
leaves, and bearing in June and July handsome yellow 
flowers ; ^' but here they are of tener found in low meadows 
and miry swamps. One of them, the Moneywort, alluded to 
O-bove, is cultivated and runs wild in our gardens. 

Gekekic Chaeacter. — All the Loosestrifes are peren- 
aial herbs, with opposite or whorled (verticiUate) leaves, and 
complete, regular, sjnimetrical, yellow, more or less gamo- 
petalous flowers, generally 5, rarely 6 or 7-parted. The co- 
rolla is somewhat wheel-shaped, the stamens as many as, and 

* We rarely find this plant varying with its flowers 8-parted. In Oregon a variety 
grows one-third larger, with flowers always 8-parted and rose-colored. 



166 



THE LOOSESTRIFES, 




Fig. XLV.— Lysimachia quadrifdlia : 2, a flower ; 3, a capsule opening ; 4, a seed ; 
5, plan of the flower. 



LTSIMACHIA. 167 

opposing the petals, generally monadelphous (united at the 
base).* The ovary is evidently compounded of 5 carpels, 
for in fruit it opens at the top by 5 valves, or 10 half-valves. 
The seeds are several or many, attached to a free central 
placenta in the one-celled capsule. 

The Name of the genus thus characterized is Lysimd- 
chia (Loose-strife or peacemaker), being dedicated to Ly- 
simachus, king of Sicily, ^^wlio," says Pliny, ^'^ first used it 
in medicine." 

Specific Chaeactee. — The species whose portrait we 
give is distinguished from the others as follows : It is an 
erect, smooth herb, 1-2 feet high, rising from a slender rhi- 
zome or creeper, its stem terete, straight, without branches. 
The leaves, commonly in whorls of 4s, more rarely in 5s, 
3s or 6s, are ovate-lanceolate, pointed, very evenly pinni- 
veined, and sessile. The flowers are on capillary (very slen- 
der, or hair-like) peduncles, one in each axil of the upper 
leaves, and 5-parted, with the petals longer than the sepals, 
golden yellow with broken black lines. Stamens of unequal 
length, evidently monadelplioiis, with no rudimentary sta- 
mens between. Capsule (in August) globular, 5-valved, 
few-seeded. 

L, quadrifolia, its specific name, alludes to its whorled 
leaves. There are other species, as X. strida, with flowers 
in a terminal raceme, a common plant in grassy meadows. 
L, cilidta, with the leaves on ciliate (hairy-edged) petioles, 
and larger axillary flowers, with 5 rudiments of stamens, is 
also common. L, nummuldria, Moneywort, with trailing 

* In some species of Loosestrife we shall find certain little points or teeth inter- 
posed between the stamens or the petals alternating with both. These are sterile 
filaments, or rudiments of stamens, and are fall of curious instruction. They explain 
the anomalous position of the stamens in these flowers. With them all the organs 
alternate. May we not make clear the same anomaly in Dodecatheon and Trientalis 
by this analogy? We have only to suppose another set of stamens or rudiments 
intended, between the stamens and petals. 



168 THE LOOSESTRIFES. 

stems and rounded leaves, is a handsome foreigner fully 
naturalized. 

In all, we have 10 species. (See Bot. & Flor., p. 212.) 
The student may record the analysis of any one of them in 
connection with this lesson. 

Classification. — The Order Primulace^, the Prim- 
worts, represented by the genera Lysimachia, Trientalis, and 
Dodecatheon, receives its name from the leading genus, 
Primula, the Primrose.* The following are its attributes : 

Plants low, herbaceous. 

Leaves all radical or mostly opposite. 

Flowers regular, gamopetalous, 5-parted. 

Stamens 5, opposing the 5 corolla lobes or petals. 

Pistils consolidated into a 1 -styled, 1 -celled ovary. 

Placenta free, central. 

Seeds many or few, with fleshy albiunen. 

The Primworts include 20 genera and 300 species, of which many 
are ornamental, especially the Primworts which have long been favor- 
ites in the gardens of Europe, and well known in ours. Their numer- 
ous varieties are variously called Oxlip, Cowslip, Auricula, Primrose, 
and Polyanthus. 

Cyclamen is native in Syria and Europe. Its round solid bulb (corm) 
is eaten by swine. Its scapes twist into a coil around the ovary after 
flowering, and lie close to the ground while the seeds ripen. It is very 
pretty in pots. 

AnagdUis, the Poor -man's Weather-glass, is a beautiful trailing 
weed. It opens its pretty red flowers from 7 to 2 o'clock if the weather 
be fair, but closes them on a damp or cloudy day. It is noted for its 



* Name from primus, first ; for its early bloom. The delicate flowers of some of 
the 60 species appear when all nature is otherwise inert. They are chiefly natives of 
Europe, and pre-eminently Alpine. Amid the cold blasts of these dreary regions, 
where the roots are perhaps bathed in ice-cold water, the little primrose lies secure 
beneath its fleecy mantle, waiting for a gleam of sunshine only to melt a patch of 
snow for it to smile forth in all its loveliness of white, yellow, violet, lilac, and sky- 
blue. A traveller one day passing over the Faulhorn saw a field of snow where a 
horse had crossed, and the snow disappearing in his tracks, the little circles were 
orimful of flowers of every hue. Only 2 species are native in the United States, and 
these so rare that the collector looks for them as for treasure. 



LYSIMACHIA. 



169 



seed-vessel — a py^is (pp. 43, 163) opening like a snuff-box. Being found 
throughout the United States, though not abundant, we give its record 
as a model for the Primworts ; 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ZTabit, iYumber, Place, Z>ehiscence, /find, Constrac- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, SizQ, (Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


, low, diffusely spreading, 6-15\ smooth. 


Root, L.K. 


0, axial, branching andfbrous. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


, procurnbent^ branching, herbaceous, quadrangular. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Opposite, sessile, palmi-xeined, ovate, entire, smooth, 8-12^\ 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


Axillary, solitary, peduncles longer than the leaves. 


Flower, N.C. 


Many, perfect, complete, regular, 5-parted. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Rotate, spreading, green, smooth. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Persistent, 5, united at base, lanceolate-linear. 


Corolla, F.Q. 


Rotate, spreading, red or blue, or white, minutely fringed. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Deciduous, 5, spreading in sunshine, obovate, united at base. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


5, hypogynous, opposing the petals, filaments bearded. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


2-ceUed, opening lengthwise, oval. 


Style, N.C.F. 


Single, very shxtrt. 


Stigma, N.F. 


Single, capitate. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


Compound, indivisible, 1-cdled, with free central placenta. 


Fmit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


Single, a pyxis, opening by a lid, circumscissile. 


Seed, N.C.F.QA. 


Many, albuminous, angular, rough. 


LOCALITY.— ^asi^ New York, L. I. (Date), June W, 1878. 
CLASSIFICATION.— PHEIVOGAMIA ; GAMOPETALOUS EXOGENS. 
Order.— Primui^ceje— The Primworts. 

Name.— Latin, Aiiagallis arvensis. 

—English, Poor^man's Weather-glass. 

RETiAiLKS-^TheJlowers open from 7 to 2 o'clock if the weather be fair , but 

close on a clmdy or rainy day. 



170 



THE SPEEDWELLS. 



XLVI. THE SPEEDWELLS. 

Description. — Along the borders of the woods, in the 
liilly pastures, the open fields, and even in the waste corners 
of the garden, we often meet the smaller Speedwells. Their 
tiny flowers greet us with a 
clear, honest welcome in the 
dewy mornings of May and 
June. * We shall know them 
by their 4-parted corolla, 2 
stamens, double ovary, and by 
the following more definite 

Ge:^eeic Characters. — 
The Speedwells are small or 
large herbs, with opposite or 
whorled leaves., and small blue, 
white, or reddish flowers in 
the axils of the leaves, or in 
terminal racemes. A 4-parted, 
green calyx supports a gamo- 
petalous, colored corolla which 
is 4-parted, slightly irregular, 
with the upper lobe somewhat 
enlarged. There are but two 
stamens, placed one on each 
side of the upper lobe and 
exserted (projecting). The 
pistil is evidently double, for though only 1 style and 1 
stigma appear, yet the ovary is 3-lobed and 2-celled, and the 
fruit a 2-celled, oo -seeded, flattened capsule. 

* Among the Germans, the Speedwell is kno\vn as the Flower of Truth, and^ the 
plant is taken as the emblem of friendship. The popular name, " Speedwell," is a 
parting salutation, equivalent to "Farewell ! " " Good-bye ! " It comes (says Prior) 
from the evanescent corollas, which fall off and fly away as soon as the plant is gathered. 




Fig. XLVI.— Ver6nica serpyllifolia: 
2, a flower ; 3, a capsule with the per- 
sistent calyx ; 4, section of the 2-celled 
capsule. 



VERONICA SERPYLLIFOLIA. 171 

Specific Characters. — The species represented in Fig. 
XLVI^ abounds along road-sides^ in billy pastures, and old 
grass-plots. Tbe stem ascends 2-6' from a reclining, 
brancbing base, with leaves opposite, slightly crenate, the 
lower petiolate, roundish, the upper becoming oval, oblong, 
and bract-like. The flowers form a loose, terminal raceme, 
in which each is located in the axil of a bract. The corolla 
is rotate (wheel-shaped), white, penciled with blue lines, 
scarcely more than 1" in breadth ; and the pods roundish, 
retusely notched. 

The Name is Veronica serpyllifdlia (V. the Thyme- 
leaved). The genus is said to have been dedicated to St. 
Veronica* {vera, true, /<?o;?, image). It is extensive, embrac- 
ing 150 species growing in the cooler parts of the earth. 
The student will meet them eyerywhere, and may as profit- 
ably analyze the following as the foregoing : 

V. ijeregrlna (the Foreigner ; so it acts, but it is native), known as 
Purslane Speedwell, © or ©, 5-9' high, smoothisli, with oblong, 
toothed leaves, whitish wheel-shaped flowers, and notched pods. 

F. arvensis (the Field or Corn Speedwell) (T), hairy, with roundish 
and ovate, crenate leaves, pale blue flowers, and obcordate pods. With 
the first, it abounds in cultivated grounds. 

V. offlcindlis (the Ofiicinal S.) a U in woods and pastures, ascends 
6-12^ from its decumbent base, with oval, obtuse, serrulate (finely ser- 
rate) leaves, and the flowers in a terminal raceme. 

V. ScutaUdria will be recognized by its long lance-linear leaves 
and axillary racemes with filiform stalks, growing in swampy places. 

* In ancient tradition. St. Veronica is represented as the daughter of Salome. 
When she witnessed the procession to Calvary v-ith Christ bearing his cross, she 
wiped the drops of agony from his brow ; and thenceforth the image of the Saviom.' 
was miraculoTisly imprinted on the napkin. 



173 



THE SPEEDWELLS. 



ORGAN. 


Life, ZTabit, iVumber, Place, i)ehiscence, Kind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm,PlacentatioD, Size, ^alities, J.ppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


U , herb, 6-W, ascending, pubescent. 


Koot, L.K. 


U , Jibers clustered at the nodes of the creepers. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


Herbaceous, decumbent at base, caulis aeii^al. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Cauline, opp. jnnni-veined, pet., oval, obtuse, serrulate. 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


Terminal raceme pedunculate. 


Flower, N.C.K. 


h-parted, 5 , fertile, irregular, gamopetalxyus, \\" diam. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Rotate, h-cleft, green, hairy. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Persistent, k, valvate, spreading, oblong. 


CoroUa, F.Q. 


Caducous, rotate, h-lobed, white, with blue lines. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Caducous, U, imbricate, lowest one smallest. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


2, exserted, epipetalous {on the petals). 


Anther, D.C.F. 


CeUs 2, confluent at apex. 


Style, N.C.F. 


One, double, thread form. 


Stigma, N.F. 


One, double, 2-lobed. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


Compound, 2-celled, superior, obcoi^date. 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


2-cai^elled, 2-celled, capsule, valvate. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


Few, albumincms, ovate, smooth. 


-LOCKLITY.— Rocky woods, West Farms, N. Y. (Date) June 12, 1878. 
CLASSIFICATION.— GAMOPETAL.OUS EXOGENS. 
Order.— ScROPHULARiACE^, or Figworts. 
Name.— Latin, Veronica officinalis. 

—English, Officinal Speedwell. 
Remarks.— 7%6 plant is bitter and astringent, used for tea in Europe, heru^ 
officinal. 



LtN"ARIA VULGARIS. 173 



XLVII. THE TOAD FLAX. 

Description. — The wayside and the borders of fields are 
often ablaze with the Summer robes of the Toad Flax. As 
it is wont to grow in large^ dense patches, the collector sig- 
nals its flame-colored flowers at a long distance. 

Analysis. — The Leaf Eegio:n'. — For the Eecord, the 
student will determine the life and kind of the root, the 
arrangement, construction, form, and quality of surface of 
the leaves, and the place, kind, etc., of the inflorescence. Xo 
new nor striking feature is noticeable in the parts consti- 
tutiug this portion of the plant. 

The Flower Regioin".— The flowers always attract the 
attention of the curious by not only their brilliant, showy 
hues, but also their singular structure, both of which justify 
the popular names, — Snapdragon, Butter-and-Eggs, etc. 

The small green calyx indicates a pentamerous (b-ipaited) 
tendency in the flowers, and the oddly-shaped corolla gives 
a faint echo of the same by the 5 unequal lobes of its border. 
An inflated tube ends in a mouth and lips above, and in a 
tail (spur) behind. The lower (outer) lip is 3-cleft, the 
upper 2-lobed. The throat is closed by the prominent 
orange-colored palate. If lateral pressure is applied, it 
gapes, and closes again with a snap. In technical language, 
the corolla is U-labiate {his, two, laUa, lips), or simply 
labiate. For its dosed throat it is perso7iate {persona, a 
mask), and for its tail, spurred."^ 



* The spur is the nectary and the entrance to it is generally closed by hairs. The 
nectar, therefore, can be reached only by insects having a long proboscis. Thus 
again is the student reminded of the mutual adaptation of flowers and insects. Here, 
as in the Evening Primrose and Honeysuckle, is a rich store of nectar ; but it is 
deeply hidden in the long spur or tube, while the flower gives off its strongest fra- 
grance at night. Now it is at night that the Sphynx Moths fly abroad. They have 
long tapering wings that enable them to poise for a long time in one position. At' 



174 THE TOAD FLAX. 

The Sta77ie?is (2) are clidynamous (dis, two, dynamis, 
power), two of them being longer than the other two. The 
law of symmetry would require a 5th stamen, as it does a 
3d and 4th in Veronica.* 

The Ova7y is in the midst of all (2), surmounted by a 
slender style, and maturing to an oblong capsule (3) of 2 
cells (4). The many seeds are idng -margined (5), escaping 
finally by chinks opening between the thin yalyes. 

In the figure (6) is represented a seed dissected, showing 
a straight 2-lobed embryo in copious albumen. 

The Name is Linaria vulgaris, Linaria alludes to its 
general likeness to the Flax {Linum, w^hence the word 
linen) ; yulgaris is given because it is common — too common 
indeed, throughout Europe, Asia, and America, for it often 
grows to an army of intrusiye weeds difficult to extirpate 
by reason of its long creeping roots, f Another species, 
L. Cymbalaria — the pretty lyy-leayed Toad Flax, is often 
seen in the greenhouse and parlor. J 

Classification. — These genera, Linaria and Veronica, 
represent the great Order Sckopulakiace^ or Figworts. 



tracted by the light color and the powerful odor, they hover over the plant, while they 
thrust their long sucking trunk into tube after tube as they flit about, apparently 
robbing the plant of its honey, out really serving the very end of Nature as pollen- 
bearers. 

* In Pentstemon, a nearly related genus, the 5th stamen appears as a filament 
without an anther, and in Mullein, of the same order, the 5th stamen is complete. 

t Mr. Watson, in his Annals of Philadelphia, says that it was introduced from 
Wales, as a garden flower, by a Mr. Eanstead, a Welsh resident. Hence one of its 
popular names, Eanstead. This plant may remind us that not everything in Nature 
was designed for the use of man alone. Flov/ers grew, blossomed, and bore fruit in 
the geologic ages, before man was created. The colors, odors, and forms of flowers 
are made to subserve ends of their i.vn. We may delight in these beautiful floral 
contrivances even without knowing their design in the economy of the plant*, bufc 
greater should be our admiration when we discover that by a wise frugality of means 
the beautiful is also the useful and the necessary ! 

X " The capsules of our Ivy-leaved Toad-flax {Linaria CyrribalaHa) before ripening 
turn round toward the wall on which the plant so often grows and creeps, and place 
themselves in a crevice or hole, so as to shed the seeds, when ripened, in a place 
where they will thrive, instead of scattering them on the ground where they would 
be wasted."— Pra«;^'5 Flowering Plants of Great Britain. 




Ftg. XLVIl.— Linaria vulgaris : 1, section of the flower, showing the arrangement 
of the organs ; 2, the stamens and pistil ; 3, the capsule ; 4, its cross-section ; 5, a 
seed ; 6, a seed dissected. 

175 



176 THE GROUND IVY. 

Here also belong the Mulleins^ Foxgloves, Gerardias, Pent- 
stemons, and all other plants which possess the following 
seven characteristics. 

Flowers irregular, without fragrance. 

Calyx free, persistent. 

Corolla gamopetalous, imbricated in aestivation. 

Stamens 2 or 4, rarely 5, inserted on tlie corolla. 

Ovary free, double, with 1 style and a 2-lobed stigma. 

Fruit a 2-celled capsule with axial placentae. 

Seeds many, anatropous, albuminous. 

The Figworts include 157 genera, 1800 species, abounding in all 
climes and countries. Among them are some medicinal and poisonous 
plants, as Digitalis (Foxglove),* and many cultivated for their hand- 
some flowers, as Calceolaria (Ladies-slipper), AntirrMnum (Snapdragon), 
Pentstemons, Maurandias, Bussellias. 

The OflBcinal Speedwell ( F. officindlis) was formerly used as tea in 
Europe, but there is no Figwort considered truly nutritious or useful 
for food.f 

Scientific Terms. — Bilabiate. Didynamous. Labiate. Penta- 
merous. Personate. Spurred. Wing-margined. 



XLVIII. THE GROUND IVY. 

Description. — This interesting plant, like the Dande- 
lion and other naturalized foreigners^ J selects its home in 

* This term is generally supposed to be a corruption of Folk's or Fairies' Glove, 
these imaginary beings having formerly been known as the '* good folk." There are 
many superstitions attached to the plant and it is still thought by the ignorant to be 
a favorite lurking place of the fairies. In South Wales the children are wont to hold 
one end of the Digitalis bell and strike the other with the hand to hear the fairy thun- 
der with which the indignant little sprite is supposed to make its escape from its 
injured retreat. According to some legends, the fairies lend the blossoms to the fox 
on his marauding expeditions, to soften his already velvet tread. 

+ During the famous siege of Eochelle by Richelieu, in 1628, the garrison for a 
time lived entirely on the root of a kind of Figwort, probably the Scrophularia aquat- 
ica. From this circumstance the plant is known in France as Herbe de Siege. 

X Let us carefully distinguish between our native and naturcdized plants. The 
former are characteristic of the country, and have flourished in its wilds, independent 
of man, for unknown ages. Such are Dodecatheon, the American Elm, &c. Nat- 
uralized plants once introduced from other lands, whether by accident or design, find 



NEPETA. 177 

cultivated soil. It prefers shady or stony places in parks, 
fence-rows and rubbish, and grows with vigor, blooming 
from May to August. It is a smooth perennial (U), here 
prostrate on the ground only, though in Europe it is often 
seen, with Moss and the True Ivy mantling the garden wall 
and ancient ruin.'* 

Analysis. — What of the Tioots ? The slender square 
stems creep extensively, forming loose mats, and putting 
forth at each node a pair of leaves and a tuft of fibrous roots. 

The JOeaves are all of one pattern, opposite, long-petioled, 
palmi-veined, Yound-reniform (kidney-shaped), crenate, i. e., 
with rounded teeth, on the margin. 

The large blue Flowers appear in loose axillary clusters. 
Tlie calyx is tubular, slightly curved, 15-veined, obliquely 
5-toothed ; corolla a thrice-longer tube, 1^ long, bilabiate, 
upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed, with the middle lobe 
largest. Looking within the corolla we find 4 didynamous 
stamens, as in Linaria, 1 less than symmetry requires. They 
stand in pairs tending toward the upper side, the inner pair 
longer than the outer. The anther comprises 2 separate 
lobes diverging at right angles, so that each pair in contact 
forms a perfect cross. There is one slender style with a 
4-parted ovary. 

here a soil and climate congenial to their nature, and grow spontaneously, as well as, 
or even hetter, than in their own country. Such are the Dandelion, Mullein, Shep- 
herd's Purse, Apple-tree. They generally betray their origin by their habits, planting 
themselves in gardens, fields, highways, wherever the soil has been stirred by the 
plough, or trampled by the foot of man. The Indians call our Common Plantain '' the 
White Man's Plant," and say it springs up in his trail, wherever he plants his foot. 

* In 1850, a deputation waited upon the Chancellor of the Exchequer in England 
respecting an abolition of duties on window-glass. To enforce their views as to the 
deleterious effects of unlighted dwellings, they exhibited a Ground Ivy plant, which 
had grown for some years in a Wardian case on the top of a model of an abbey. 
The branches which were turned toward the light were laden with leaves, flowers 
and fruit ; while the stems which had trailed down between the model and the 
window, and so lost the light, had no blossoms or fruit, and their leaves were scarce 
one-tenth as large as the others. Every condition of growth, save that of sunlight, 
was necessanly the same for all the branches of the plant, and the dwarfed, starved 
state of one portion arose solely from that single deprivation. 



178 



THE GROUND IVY. 



The J^rtiil consists appar- 
ently of 4 reddish oval seeds 
contained, until ripe, in the 
persistent calyx. But the seeds 
must not be confounded with 
the fruits which contain them. 
There are 4 achenia or nutlets, 
each containing 1 seed. 

I'/ie Cat?m?it^ blooming 
early in July, will also fall in 





Fig. XL\TII.— Nepeta Glechoma : 2, a 'flower ; 3, the stamens and pistil ; 4, the 
fruit— four achenia. 

the way of every collector. It is another foreigner, perfectly 
naturalized, springing up in waste corners around our coun- 
try dwellings. Let the student compare the Ground Ivy and 



BRUNELLA. 179 

the Catmint^ "^ and carefully note the resemilanccs and the 
differences. The former will make up the generic^ the latter 
the specific characters — thus : 

Resemblances (generic). In both, the stem is square ; 
leaves opposite ; calyx tubular, 15-veined ; corolla bilabiate ; 
throat not hairy, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-cleft, middle lobe 
largest ; stamens ascending ; anthers approximating by pairs, 
their 2 cells separate and diverging ; style bifid, fruit 4 
achenia. 

DiFFERE^S'CES (spccific). The Catmint is clothed with a 
whitish pubescence ; the stem is erect ; the leaves short-pet- 
ioled, ovate, cordate, acute, crenate-serrate, the upper reduced 
to bracts ; the flowers in dense axillary clusters {verticils) ; 
corolla not twice longer than the calyx, white. 

The Name of the genus thus characterized is Nepeta 
(Nepet^ a town in Tuscany). Ground Ivy is N. Gleclioraa 
(ancient Greek for Thyme). Catmint is iV. Qatar ia^ a play 
on Puss's name, whose fondness for the herb is thereby com- 
memorated. 

XLIX, BLUE CURLS. 

Description. — This plant is perhaps better known by 
the name Self-heal, f It is a native of low grounds both in 
fields and forests, flowering from May to August according 
to climate. Its squarish, blue-flowered cluster is a familiar 
object in the rural scenes of our boyhood. In New England 
its growth is stinted to a few inches in stature, but in the 
rich bottoms of the West it attains to several feet, its flowers 
being proportionately larger. 

* Dried specimens of Catmint may be used for comparison, when fresh ones in 
flower cannot be found. 

t The popular name, Self-heal, intimates that with it one may cure himself, or as 
expressed in the French proverb quoted by Ruellius {D6 Natura Stirpium), *'No one 
needs a surgeon who has Prunelle." 



180 



BLtJE CURLS. 




Analysis.— With the plant 

in hand, the student will easily 
reply to inquiries like the fol- 
lowing : What are the duration 
and form of the root? — the 
attitude and height of the 
stem ? — the length and form 
of the internodes ? — ^branches? 
What is the 
clothing of 
the plant? 
What is the 
arrangement 
of the leaves? 
— length of 
petiole ? — 
form of the 
blade?— mar- 
gin ? — apex ? 
base? — vena- 
tion? 



Fig. XLIX.— Brunella vulgaris : 2, a flower without the calyx, 
showing the spurred filaments ; 3, plan of the flower ; 4, a flower 
of Sage (Salvia) ; 5, the 2 stamens in their natural position ; 6, 
after being tilted over by a bee.* 



♦ In the com- 
mon garden Sage 
(Salvia officinalis), 
there is a curious 
device for secur- 
ing cross-fertiliza- 
tion. There are 
but 2 stamens; the 
2 cells of each an- 
ther, instead of being close together as is usual, are widely separated by a long con- 
nective (5, 6). The lower cell contains very little if any pollen, while the upper is 
full. The connective is fixed to the filament by a pivot, and naturally stands in posi- 
tion as seen in 5. Meanwhile the stigma is yet immature and high up in the arch, 
when a bee seeking nectar alights on the door-step— the lower lip— and entering the 
tube pushes against the lower anther cells, tilts the connective as seen in 6, bringing 
the upper cells down on his back. The next flower he visits has perhaps its stigma 
mature and situated as seen in 4, occupying the same place which was before 
Occupied by the tilted anthers, which have now withered away. The learner may 
observe these phenomena for himself. 



BRUKELLA VULGARIS. 181 

What is the form of the bracts ? — color of the flower ? — 
form of corolla ? — upper lip ? — lower lip ? — number of the 
stamens ? — construction ? — which the longer pair ?— append- 
age of the filament ? — 5th stamen ? How many styles are 
there ? — what are the kind and form of the fruit ? 

Obserye that the leaves are rather obtuse than acute ; that 
the broad bracts are palmi-yeined and tipped with a cusp 
{cuspidate), and the hairs are jointed. 

Inflorescence . — The flowers occur in 3s, each triplet 
occupying the axil of a bract, and the middle flower open- 
ing first according to the centrifugal mode. Such a cluster 
is a cyme. Many such^ with their bracts, are closely imbri- 
cated, forming a dense terminal, 4-sided spike (for the flow- 
ers are sessile). 

The JFtowers, The calyx is colored, bell-form (cam- 
panulate), 2-lipped, the upper lip truncate (square-cut), with 
3 small teeth, the lower lip 2-cleft. In the corpUa, observe 
the vaulted or concave upper lip, covering the stamens and 
style, the lower, 3-lobed, dependent lip, and the ring ob- 
structing the tube within near the base.* The longer pair 
of stamens is the lower (outer), and a spur or tooth appears 
on each filament above near the 2-parted anther. Four egg- 
shaped achenia are at length found in the bottom of the 
calyx, as in Ifepeta. 

The Name in science is Brunella vulgaris ; Brunella, 
from the German braeun, the quinsy ; this plant being a 
reputed remedy for this disease ; vulgaris, common ; since 
it grows in nearly every country on the globe. 

Classification. — !N"epeta and Brunella are now seen to 
be closely related. Features which they possess in common 



* In the labiate flowers it is noticeable how the lower ]ip is arranged for the con- 
venience of insects alighting, and how all the flowers are so grouped as to give this 
doorstep the utmost prominence. 



182 THE MORNIXG GLOEY. 

characterize the vast and important order of Labiate Plants^, 
or Labiate. 

Herbs aromatic. 
Stems quadrangular. 
Leaves opposite, exstipulate. 
Corolla bilabiate more or less. 
Stamens didynamous or diandrous. 
Ovary deeply 4-parted. 
Fruit 4 nutlets or achenia. 

The Labiate Plants include 125 genera, 2550 species. Among 
them are the Mints {Mentha) — Peppermint, Spearmint, etc. ; also 
Hoarhound and Hyssop, Balm and Lavender, Sage and Pennyroyal. 
Their richly aromatic oils are stimulant ; their extracts febrifugal, 
None are poisonous. The Oil of Peppermint, the best known among 
essential oils, is obtained by distillation from Mentha piperita. Oil of 
Lavender is distilled from Lamndula vera, and Oil of Spike from 
L. Spica. The former is used in perfumery, the latter in delicate 
varnishes, etc. ^ 



L. MORNING GLORY. 

** O bells of triu7npk ! delicate trumpets^ thrown 
Heavenward and earthward^ turned East ^ JVest^ North^ Souths 
In lavish beauty ! Who through you hath blown 
The sweet cheer of the Morning ? '* Celia Thaxter. 

Description. — This glorious plant is a native of Tropi- 
cal America and now universally cultivated. It is also 
nearly naturalized with us, growing spontaneously as a weed 
from seeds shed in cultivated grounds. It is strictly annual. 
In a single season it accomplishes its wonderful growth, 
transfers its own vitality to a thousand seeds, and dies. 

The Flowers are ephemeral (epi for, hemera a day). 
Beginning to open soon after midnight, they greet the Sun 
at his rising, arrayed in all their glory, and before he reaches 
the meridian, fold their robes and perish. But their work 



IPOMCEA. 



183 




is done, and their succes- 
sors, already in bud, will 
renew the gorgeous display 
the following morning. 

Analysis. — Observa- 
tion and study are wont 
to begin with the Flower^ 
and for once we will re- 
verse our usual order. The 
calyx^ the outer envelope, 
green, persistent, is com- 
posed of 5 long-pointed 
sepals combined at the 
base into a cup. The in- 
ner envelope, the fugaci- 
ous corolla, between trum- 
pet and bell-form, of deli- 
cate texture and intense 
colors, is composed of 5 
broad petals united along 
the plicate (folded) edges, 
quite to the expanding en- 
tire border. In the bud, 
the folds are contorted 
(twisted) tvitJi the sun, i. e., 
from left to right — a kind 
of aestivation called super- 
volute. 

The 5 stamens adhere 
to the lower part of the co- 
rolla tube, opposite to its 

Fig. L.— Ipomcea purpurea \ /, a flower ; sta^ tlie stamens ; st^ the style ; 5, 
stigma ; o, ovary ; d, disk ; a, anther and pollen ; p, a pollen grain ; fi\ capsule ; c, 
capsule dissected ; o, capsule opening ; sd^ seed ; 0, embryo ; emh, the embryo grow< 
ing ; r, radicle ; c, cotyledons. 



184 



THE MORmNG GLORY. 




folds, and fall with it. The 2-celled anther is adnate (fixed 
laterally) to the filament above. Opening lengthwise, the 
cells disclose innumerable round, white grains of pollen, 
which, under the mi- 
croscope, appear beset 
all over with blunt' 
points or tubercles. 

The style — the central 
organ — smooth, slender, 
supports the 3-lobed stig- 
ma at the top, and stands 

upon the free ovary. The ^^^^iX^ii'^ IHMW c 

disk* a fleshy ring, be- 
girts the ovary at its base; 
hence it is annular and 
hypogynous. The contents of the ovary will be understood 
by viewing its various sections (cuttings) under a lens, when 
3 cells, each with 2 ovules (young seeds) will be seen. Let 
the student observe the attitude of the ovules, the place and 
the organ whence they arise. Their destiny we well know. 
They will become the seeds in the ripening fruit, and from 
them new plants will arise the following year. 

The pollen. Watch the expanded flower at sunrise. 
The anther cells are also open, and the pollen is set free, to 
fall, to fly with the wind, or be rudely brushed away by the 
humble-bee as he plunges into flower after flower in search 
of the nectar secreted in its depths. Thus a thousand grains 
may be lost, but some few are almost certain to be lodged 
on the stigma standing in the midst. On this event depends 

** A disk is an outgrowth of the torus under or around the ovary. It may be 
annular, or cup-form, according to the degree of its development. When it does not 
adhere to the ovary or calyx, it is said to Le free and hypogynous ; when it adheres to 
the base of the calyx it is perigynous. Sometimes it adheres to both the calyx and 
the ovary, gluing them together, and even enlarging on the top of the ovary, as in 
the Umbelliferae ; then it is epigynous. 



IPOMCEA. 185 

the life and growth, i. e., the fertilization of the seed* If 
the stigma be covered or destroyed so as to prevent the action 
of the pollen, no seed will be perfected in the ovary and no 
fruit produced. Or if the stigma remain good and yet no 
pollen be lodged upon it, the fruit is equally sure to fail. 
Therefore the nectar secreted in the nectaries of the flower, 
and the insect that comes to gather it while unconsciously 
scattering the pollen, are both necessary links in the Creator's 
plan. Thus the flower is not merely a thing of beauty. It 
is an apparatus for a specific work in which each organ per- 
forms a definite part. That work is the production of living 
seed for the perpetuation of its kind upon the earth. 

The ^rml. After the corolla with the stamens has fallen, 
the calyx folds itself closely on the ovary and covers it while 
both continue to grow. At maturity the calyx again spreads 
and discloses a dry, round pod — a capsule, of curious and 
beautiful structure. It appears 3-carpelled and 3-celled, as 
predicted by the 3-lobed stigma. The 3 valves separate at 
the lines of their juncture with the partitions (a septifragal 
dehiscence), leaving the latter persistent, entire. 

Seeds, We find in each cell 2 seeds, the perfected work 
of the flower. Their structure may be observed by tearing 
one open just before it becomes hardened, or by sections cut 
in various directions. Here is a pair of oddly shaped, green- 
ish leaves joined to a short stem, folded and packed with a 
gelatinous substance. It is the enibryo, or young plant, and 
its nourishing albumen,^ How does this seed differ from 

* The question of a seed's vitality is interestins:, at least to the gardener. He accepts 
all kinds as good for a year, and, as a rule, rejects such as are known to he older. 
There are, however, many kinds of seeds which are long-lived. The seeds of Maize 
and Rye have heen known to grow after 30 or 40 years old ; Kidney Beans when 100, 
and the Raspberry (according to Lindley) after 1700 years. It is often observed that 
when, from deep excavations, earths are first brought to the surface, they are soon 
covered with strange plants, probably from seeds long buried. After the " Great Fire 
in London," the Hedge Mustard {Sisymbrium)^ previously unknown in that locality, 
sprang up thickly amid the blackened ruins. 



186 THE MORNING GLORY. 

that of the Apple (p. Ill), or the Pea (p. 118) ? It has albu- 
men separate from the embryo, while in the Apple seed and 
Pea there is no separate albumen, but the nutritive matter is 
stored up in the massive cotyledons. Hence that important 
distinction in seeds — the albuminous, and exalbuminous. 

Germination. — In the Spring months you will find the 
seeds of the Morning Glory germinating in almost every gar- 
den. Our cuts show them in various stages. The seed has 
absorbed water from the soil. The embryo and albumen are 
softened ; the latter is sweetened, and so imbibed by the 
growing radicle which soon protrudes and turns downward. 
The cotyledons enlarge, burst the seed-coats, and spread sky- 
ward as a pair of leaves [c, c). In the axis between them a 
bud appears, grows, and in a few days its outer scales begin 
to unfold in succession as a 3d, 4th, and 5th leaf, while the 
axis extends into internodes between. Thus leaf after leaf, 
in the order of a spiral line, is unfolded, while the axis with 
its ever-growing bud at the summit still mounts higher. 

Branches. — By this process the one terminal bud is de- 
veloped without limit into a plant with a simple stem. At 
length other buds appear, one in the axil of each leaf. From 
these axillary buds come the branches and flower-stalks.* 

A Climber. — The weakness of the Morning Glory vine is 
compensated by its wonderful instinct. Unable of itself to 
stand upright, it creeps toward the nearest support and 
ascends by twining. around it spirally. The direction of its 



* Carefully examined, the seed, or starting-point in the life of the plant, is com- 
posed of a leaf, or leaves, closely packed, and altered in tissue and contents so as to 
suit its new requirements. This is shown in the germination of a Bean or Morning 
Glory, where the two seed-lobes (cotyledons) arise with the stem as leaves nourishing 
the young plant. In the Pea they remain stationary at the base of the stem, yielding 
their nourishment but never expanding. The bud, which, like the seed, is an epitome 
of the plant, is also composed of leaf-rudiments closely folded, and protected from 
Winter frosts by thick leathery scales, and evolving in Spring the stem, leaves, and 
fruit— in short, every structure which comes from the seed. 



IPOMCEA. 187 

turning is always against the sun — from right to left, con- 
trary to the twisting of its corolla buds.* 

The Hoot has no such aspiration. Growing downward 
from the first moment of its breaking through the seed-coats, 
it persistently avoids the air and light, seeking the dark, 
damp depths of the soil. Its innumerable fibers are so many 
mouths absorbing water and earthy matters, which ascend 
and mix with the air and gases absorbed by the leaves. 
Chemical action is induced by the rays of the Sun, trans- 
forming all into nourishing sap for the life and growth of 
every part of the plant. 

The Name. — By the latest authorities {Bentham & 
Hooker^s Genera), the Morning Glory is called Ipomcea pur- 
purea. But it has many synonyms. In 1750, Linnaeus first 
named it Convolvulus purpureus. In 1790, Lamark trans- 
ferred it to the genus Ipomoea. In 1840, Choisy separated 
it, together with all other 3-carpelled species, from Ipomoea 
to his new genus, Pharbitis. Ipomoea is from ips, Greek for 
Bindweed, omoeos, like. 

Classification. — The order Coxvolyulace^ — the 

Bindweeds — represented by the Morning Glory, is limited 

as follows : 

Herbs trailing or climbing, with alternate leaves. 

Flowers regular, 5-parted, perfect. 

Calyx of 5 sepals imbricated in sestivation. 

Corolla of 5 united petals, supervolute in aestivation. 

Stamens 5, unequal, adhering to the corolla tube. 

Ovary and capsule 2 or 3-carpelled, 2-4-celled. 

Seeds with large embryo and thin albumen. 

The Bindweeds number 32 genera and 800 species, chiefly inhab- 
iting the warm regions of the globe. 

The Sweet Potato is Batatas edulis, a vine resembling the Morning 

* It seems to be a common law among t^vining vines that each species should twine 
invariably in one direction— some (as the Hop) always with the Sun, others (as Morn- 
ing Glory) against the Sun. 



188 



THE ROCK MAPLE. 



Glory, said to be a native of India. It is cultivated by cuttings, and 
seldom flowers. The potatoes are tubers growing from the stem as 
short underground branches. They serve the plant as reservoirs of 




iirplus starch and sugar foi 
;s use in early Spring. 
Jalap, a well-known drug, is the root of 
IpomoRa purga of Mexico. 

Scammony is the root of Conwlvulus Scam- 
mdnium of Syria. 






m 


w^^H 


7>JI 


^^^^^ 


^4 


^^^' 


\\y^\.. 


^-a-Tn^''-'- 



LI. THE ROCK 
MAPLE. 

Description. 

— This valuable 
tree, known as 
the Eock Maple 
or Sugar Maple, 
grows in forests, 
openings, or 
fields, from Can- 
ada to the moun- 
tains of Georgia, 
and from Nova 
Scotia to the Eocky Mountains. It is 
most abundant in the New England 
States, where it is an embellishment 



Fig. LI.— Acer eac- 
charinum — the Sugar 
Maple. Sugar-making 
in New Hampshire. 



ACEK. 



189 



in almost every landscape. It is a handsome tree, cheering the 
beholder with its aspect of life and energy. When assembled 
in forests, they grow to the height of 80 or 90 feet, with a 
trunk 4 or 5 feet in diameter, entire two-thirds of its height.* 
In open situations, or in planted parks and rows, it stands 
40 to 50 feet high, with a 
trunk one-third this height 
supporting a broad pyra- 
midal leafy crown. But the 
aged trees assume a great 
variety of forms, picturesque 
or beautiful, which the artist 
is never weary of studying. 

Analysis.— The ^oots 
are often above ground, espe- 
cially on the rocks they love, 
diverging many feet from 
the base, massive and strong, 
finally dissolving and de- 
scending deep. A cross-sec- 
tion of one will show the 
wood in annual layers inclosed in bark, but destitute of pith. 

The Stem^ or trunk, in young trees is straight, erect, 
cylindrical, with bark slightly furrowed, gray, clouded with 
umber. With age it becomes shaggy with long, deep fur- 
rows in the bark, and angular with woody ridges from the 
main roots upward, and often bent and gnarly. The wood 
is hard, compact, pearly white, with a satin-like luster. 
Under a strong magnifier it appears as in the cut (5), 
showing clearly the three kinds of tissue of which it is 
composed. 




5, a shaving of the wood of Maple 
gi*eatly magnified ; a, the silver grain 
or medullary rays ; h, spiral tubes con- 
veying air or water ; c, the proper wood- 
cells. 



* A tree in Blandford, Mass., 4 feet through at hase, and 108 feet high, yielded 
seven and a half cords of woo^,— Emerson^ s Report. 



190 THE ROCK MAPLE. 

The I^eaves grow opposite^ in pairs, on long, slender 
petioles, palmi-veined and reticulated. The blade is as broad 
as long, somewhat cordate at base, extended loitli the veins 
into 5 or 7 pointed lobes,* each bearing a few large teeth, and 
with rounded intervals between; smooth above, a little downy 
and pale-glaucous beneath. In the autumn, they undergo a 
wonderful change of color. From a bright green, of various 
shades in different trees, they become tinted and stained 
with the most brilliant hues — yellow, orange, scarlet, crim- 
son, assuming often the very colors of flame, to the sudden 
alarm of the unwary. f (See illustrations, p. 295.) 

The J^lowe7^s appear in April and May, together with 
the expanding leaves, proceeding from buds clustered at and 
near the end of the branchlets. They are yellowish green in 
color, in umbel-like corymbs, pendulous on slender, thread- 
like, downy pedicels about 2' long. There is a bell-shaped, 
fringed calyx with 8 or 10 stamens within, and no petals. 
In respect to fruit, the flowers are of two kinds. In the 



* That infinite variety of beautiful and graceful forms for which the leaf is dis- 
tinguished, becomes intelligible only when viewed in connection with its venation. 
Since it is through the veins alone that nutriment is conveyed for the development 
and extension of the tissue, it follows that there will be the greatest extension of out- 
line in the direction of the largest veins. Pinni-veined leaves, wherein the midvein 
is the largest and all the rest side-branches, will generally be longer than wide, i. e., 
lanceolate, ovate, oval, oblong, oblanceolate, etc. Palmi-veined leaves, wherein there 
are several chief veins running from the base of the blade to the margin, will gen- 
erally be broad in outline— as broadly ovate, or orbicular, or renif orm ; and often 
palmately trilobate, 5-lobed, 7-lobed, according to the number of veins. When the 
veinlets are comparatively weak, there may be a deficiency of tissue between the veins, 
causing the leaf to become either deeply lobed, or parted, or even divided up into 
several or many leaflets ; in short, it thus becomes a compound leaf, either pinnately 
or palmately compound. Thus the student will notice with surprise that the general 
venation of a compound leaf differs in no wise from that of its corresponding simple 
leaf. 

t The richest and most diverse hues that nature can produce by the separation and 
blending of all the prismatic colors, meet us in every grove, hill-side, and mountain. 
Red of every shade, from crimson to cherry ; yellow, from bright sulphur to orange ; 
brown, from clove-brown to liver-brown ; and green, from grass-green to oil-green, 
stand forth in distinct spots, yet all mingled in fantastic proportions, clothing the 
landscape with an almost dazzling brilliancy, especially when lighted up by the mel- 
low rays of an October ^un.— Hitchcock. 



ACER. 



191 



sterile {$), the stamens are prominently exserted and the 
stigmas deficient ; in the fertile ( ? ), the stamens are defi- 
cient and hidden in the calyx, and the 2 stigmas prominent, 
with a double ovary. 

The J^ruU. As the ovary matures, a wing grows on the 
back of each carpel, converting the fruit into 2 winged 
samaras^ or a double samara (a key), separable into two 
single ones. In each there is one seed, containing an embryo 




6, section of a samara, showing the folded cotyledons aX e ; 7 to 11, progressive 
stages of germination. 

with 2 large, folded cotyledons, and no albumen. It is in- 
structive to watch the progress of these seeds in germination, 
as may be seen in aU stages, in living specimens, under the 
Maples in Spring, as represented in the cuts. 

The Sap of the Eock Maple is rich in sweetness, contain- 
ing about 1 part of sugar to 30 parts of water. Early in 
March, or in February, while the buds are yet dormant, the 
sap begins to arise from the roots, and will overflow through 
tubes inserted in auger-holes cut deep into the wood for this 



192 THE HOKSE CHESTNUT. 

purpose. The sugar is obtained by vaporization over hot 
fires. When the buds begin to open into leaves and flowers, 
the overflow of sap ceases. 

The Name of the Eock Maple, Acer saccharinum, is 
characteristic — acer, sharp, vigorous, saccliarum^ sugar. 
Other kinds, both native and foreign, inhabit our forests 
and parks. (See Botanist and Florist, p. 74.) Among native 
species, A. rubrum, the Red, or Swamp Maple, with early 
crimson flowers and red-tinged leaves, will claim the learner's 
attention ; also, A. dasycarpum, the White or Silver-leaved 
Maple, with leaves silvery-white beneath. 

A. Pennsylvdnicum, is a small, graceful tree, 12 to 20 feet 
high in northern forests, of many peculiar traits. Its leaves 
are generally 3-lobed, and the flowers with 5 petals, in long 
drooping racemes, are uncommonly showy. It is called 
Striped Maple, because of the smooth bark colored green and 
dark-brown in alternate longitudinal lines. It is the Moose- 
wood in Maine, its bark and tender branches being the fa- 
vorite winter food of the Moose ; and it also bears the name 
of Whistlewood, from the facility with which the boys con- 
vert its straight, smooth branches into musical instruments. 



Lll. THE HORSE CHESTNUT. 

Description. — This splendid tree is a native of Northern 
Asia, whence, by way of Constantinople, it emigrated to 
Europe, and from Europe to America. Here it is extensively 
planted for ornament and shade. It is noted for its rapid 
growth, massive foliage, and symmetrical proportions ; but 
rejected by artists as wanting the picturesque. 

Analysis. — The Tru7ilc is a straight, cylindric column^ 
with bark comparatively smooth, entire a third of its height, 



^SCULUS. 



193 



thence excurrenty giving off numerous straight branches and 
forming an oval or pyramidal, dense crown of foliage. 

The Leaves are a perfect exemplification of symmetry 
and order. In arrangement they are in pairs, one leaf oppo- 




FiG. LII.— JEsculus Hippocastanum. 



3, seed genninating. 



site another,* supported on long slender petioles. At top 
the petiole divides, as in the Maple, into 7 veins diverging 

* The learner has already observed three modes of leaf -arrangement, viz., the 
alternate in the Rose worts, etc., the opposite in the Maples, and the verticUlate in the 
Loosestrife. He will now be interested in comparing them. In the alternate arrange- 
ment there is only one leaf at each node ; in the opposite, there are two, and in the 
verticillate, 3 or more. The true nature of the alternate may be learned by an experi- 
ment. Select a straight, leafy shoot or stem of an Apple-tree, Evening Primrose, or 
any plant with seemingly scattered leaves. Beginning with the lowest leaf, fix a 
thread to the base of the petiole. Pass then, right or left, to the next leaf above and 
do the same ; thence to the next in the same direction, and so on by all the leaves to 
the top. The thread will form a regular spiral. Let the same experiment be repeated 
in a shoot with opposite leaves, and two spirals running parallel with each other will 
be found ; and in the case of verticillate leaves, as many spirals as there are leaves in 
each verticil. Hence the course of development in all growing plants is spiral, (See 
Class- Book^ pp. 46-50, on PhyUotaxy.) .... 

9 



194 THE HOESE CHESTNUT. 

into a circlet, each becoming the midvein of a leaflet. The 
leaflets are inversely lanceolate, or oUanceolatey and serrate. 
Such leaf forms are palmately compound and digitate (finger- 
shaped), with the same venation as the simple leaf of the 
Maple (note, p. 193). 

The l7iJlorescence is terminal, centrifugal, in showy, 
erect, pyramidal panicles, strongly contrasted in colors with 
the deep green of the foliage. 

The JP towers are irregular, unsym metrical, complete 
though often infertile. The 5 sepals united at base form a 
5-lobed calyx. The 5 white petals dashed here and there 
with yellow and red, are entirely distinct. The 7 stamens 
with the 1 slender style are twice bent — downward, then 
upward. The ovary is 3-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell. 

The Frtcit is a 3-valved burr, beset with prickly points 
without, and occupied within by only one (rarely 2) large 
mahogany-colored seed.* It thus fails to fulfil the promise 
of its ovary. Of the 6 ovules, only one grows, to the sup- 
pression of the others and 2 of their cells. A careful exam- 
ination will show the strangled rudiments, f The seed, often 
1' in diameter, includes 2 huge cotyledons inseparably united, 
without albumen. In germination, their 2 petioles (for the 
cotyledons are leaves) lengthen, and the plumule (the pri- 
mary bud) issues from between them. 

The Name, j^sculus^ the title of this genus, was the 
ancient Latin name of a certain Oak with esculent fruit. 
z^. Hippocdstanum = horse-chestnut, alludes to its former 
reputation as a veterinary medicine. 

j^. glabra^ with prickly fruit, and ^. flava, with smooth 

* One regrets that these "beautiful seeds are not esculent like the Chestnut. They 
are however greedily eaten by deer, and in Switzerland they have proved to be an 
excellent food for sheep, giving a rich flavor to the meat. 

t Similar suppressions habitually occur in the Oak, Birch, etc. The acorn is 1-seeded 
from a 3-celled, 6-ovuled ovary (p. 20&-9). 



ASCLEPIAS. 195 

fruit, are natiye species, called Buckeye. Both are large 
forest trees, with 5 leaflets and 4 petals. Other species are 
shrubs, with red or purple panicles, often seen in shrubberies. 
Classification. — ^scalus and Acer would seem, at first 
view, to have little affinity with each other ; but of late, 
botanists have included both, together with Sapindus 
(Soapberry), StapTiyUa (Stafftree), and other genera equally 
diverse in aspect, in the same order — the Sapindace^, oi 
Soapworts. Their affinities are approximate rather than 
identical, so that the ordinal character cannot be satisfacto- 
rily formulated. 

The Soapworts comprehend 73 genera, 650 species, divided int(y 
four suborders, found in all northern countries, and abundant within 
the Tropics. 

Sapindus {sapo-indicits = Indian Soap) gives name to the order. One 
of its species, S. margindtus, called Soapberry, grows in Georgia and 
westward. It is a small tree, with pinnate leaves, flowers in large 
panicles, and berries reddish-brown as large as grapes, and full of a 
soapy pulp. Other species in the W. Indies, more abundant in alkali, 
are actually used in washing linen. 

Paiillmia, of Brazil, affords the Guarana, a popular beverage resem. 
bling tea in its effects. The seeds are dried, pulverized, kneaded into 
dough, then dried in cakes for the market. 



Llll. SILK GRASS. 

Description. — A stout herb a yard in height^ surcharged 
with milk-white juice, and bearing globular clusters of bloom 
in June and July, is a sight familiar to the traveler in the 
low-lands along the streamlet or wayside. The plant is 
variously called Milkweed or Silk-grass. We shall leave the 
student alone, to study for record the organs constituting the 
leaf -region. The flowers and fruit present new and strangely 
curious structures. 



196 



SILK GRASS. 




Fig. Lm.— Asclepias Cornuti : 1, a flower natural size ; 2, a flower enlarged ; 3, 
the ovaries (advanced) aud compound anther exposing the poUinia ; 4, a pair of pol- 
linia attached to the gland ; 5, one of the hoods with its horn ; 6, vertical section of 
anther and ovaries of A. phytolaccoides, with 2 pollinia in place ; 7, a hood of the 
same ; 8, a follicle ; 9, a follicle open, showing the fledged seeds imbricated on the 
large placenta. 



Analysis. — The l7i/lo7^esce7ice is a simple umbel with 
pedicels (or rays) all of equal length and diverging in every 
direction. The 5 lanceolate petals, slightly gamopetalous at 
the base, are valvate in bud, and after opening, sharply re- 
flexed, concealing the 5 sepals, and exposing the corona 



A80LEPIAS. 197 

(staminate crown) to view. This consists of 5 fleshy, jose- 
white hoods attached to the mass of united anthers and stig- 
mas. From the opening of each hood projects a little curved 
horn. Both hood and horn are of unknown use. 

Gotten . Of the 5 anthers, each contains 2 club-shaped 
masses of pollen {polliiiia) suspended in pairs beneath the 
disk of the stigma by slender stipes attached to 5 double 
glands. The poUinia of adjacent anthers are so united. The 
glands are very sticky and adhere to such insects as call in 
quest of honey, while their poUinia are dragged out of the 
anthers and carried to other flowers. This may be for 
the purpose of cross-fertilization ; but the double pollinia 
dangling ^^like saddle-bags" from the legs of the insects 
often prove very annoying. 

Under the staminal mass are 2 ovaries, each 1-celled with 
numerous ovules. But few of the ovaries in the umbel are 
fertilized and come to maturity. 

The Fruit is lance-shaped, with a rough exterior, 1-celled, 
and opens by a slit along the inner side. Such we call a 
follicle. It incloses many flat seeds imbricated on the large 
placenta, each fledged with a tuft of long silky hairs called 
a coma. These serve, like the down of the Dandelion, to 
waft the seeds to a distance. 

The Scientific Name of the Milkweed shown in the 
figure, is Asclepias Cornuti, or the Horned Asclepij^s, the 
genus being dedicated to ^sculapius, the god of Medicine. 
There are 50 species, which differ, however, in only a few 
particulars from the description in the text. 

Classification. — The order of the Asclepiads (Ascle- 
PIADACE^) may be formulated as follows : 

Plants with a milky juice. 

Flowers regular, perfect, 5-parted, symmetrical. 

Stamens and stigma consolidated. 



198 



SILK GBASS. 



Anthers, eacli with 2 pollinia. 
Ovaries 2, with 1 stigma. 
Fruit, 1 or 2 follicles. 
Seeds with a coma. 



OKGAN. 


Life, Rsibit, iVumber, Place, Dehiscence, ^ind, ConstruO' 
tion, i^orm, Placcntation, iS'ize, ^alities, J.ppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


Ut erect, branching, 2-3 ft., leafy, pubescent in lines, milky. 


Root, L.Q. 


2f , axial, branching. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


Caulis erect, herbaceous, branched, U-sided. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Petiolate, opp., pinni-v,, lanceolate, pointed, obtuse at base. 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


Umbels term, and axillary, pedunculate. 


Flower, N.C. 


00 , perfect., 5-parted, gamop.^ with a corma of 5 hoods 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Small, rotate, valvate. [seated on the stamens. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Decid. 5, spreading, ovate, smooth. 


Corolla, F.Q. 


Gamopetalous, valvate, rose-red. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Dedd. 5, oblong, reflexed hoods shmter than the slender 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


5, united, on the corolla at base. [incurved horns. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Each vertically 2-cdled, joined to the stigma. 


Style, N.C.F. 


None. 


Stigma, N.F. 


Pollinia united in pairs to 5 sticky glands on tlie 5 angles 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


2, distinct, conical. [of the stigma. 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


Follicle mostly but one, smooth. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


Anatropous, flat, imbricated, oval, comous. 


LOCALITY.— 7/i a swamp, Lexington, Mass. (Date), June SO, 1870, 
CLASSIFICATION.-GAMOPETALOUS EXOGENS 

—Order, Asclepiabacejs, The Asclepiads. 
NATVTR.— Latin, Asclepias incamata. 

—English, Swamp Milkweed. 
REMARKS. — The corona is rose-red like the petals. 



POLYGONUM. 199 

The AbClepiads number 146 genera and 1300 species, most abun- 
dant in S. India, S. Africa, and Australia. There are comparatively few 
species in the United States. 

Butterfly-weed, or Pleurisy Root (Asdepias tuberosa), a handsome 
plant with orange colored flowers, native in our pastures and meadows, 
IS employed medicinally as a laxative and diaphoretic. 

DiscMdiaj of E. India, is a famous Pitcher Plant. 

The Cow Tree of Ceylon {Gymnema lactiferum) yields a bland, whole- 
some milk which the natives use for food. 

The Wax Plant {Hoya), from the W. Indies, with wax-like leaves 
and umbels, is a favorite house plant. 

Stapelia, with flowers so foetid as to deserve the name " Carrion 
Flower," is a large S. African genus.* 

The Record of A. incarnata, another species quite com- 
mon, is here annexed as a model for the order. 

Scientific Terms.— Coma. Corona. Gamopetalous. Hoods. 
Horns. Pollinia. 



LIV. SPOTTED KNOTWEED. 

Description. — In June, and after, the Spotted Knotweed 
displays its flesh-colored spikes. Like the other foreigners, 
it seeks cultured fields and the waste corners about our 
dwellings ; and the garden which is free from its encroach- 
ment is well kept. None favors the intruder, yet the bot- 
anist may profit by the study of its wonderful organization. 

Analysis. — The Soot. We first note that the root is 
axial in its kind, and a cross-section shows but one woody 
layer ; hence it is annual. The stem is remarkable for the 
distinctness of the internodes, the nodes being excessively 
swelled, and looted with the stipules. 

* This plant is sometimes cultivated in the green -house for the sake of its gro- 
tesque branches and pretty flowers. So carrion-like is its odor that the common 
blue-bottle fly is said often to make the mistake of "blowing" it, i. e., of depositing 
Its eggs upon the petals, where they occasionally hatch, but only to starve. 



200 



SPOTTED KNOTWEED. 




Fig. LI v.— Polygonum Persickria: 2, portion of a cluster enlarged; 3, a flower; 
4, ovary and 2 styles ; 5, achenium ; 6, seed dissected, showing the embryo. 

The Stipules are of a pattern called oclireoe. They grow 
in pairs from the base of the petiole as usual, but unite into 
a membranous sheath clasping the node and stem like a boot 
(ochrea), and in this species are fringed, or ciliate with a few 
long hairs. The outline, margin, construction and quality 
of the leaf, including the heart-shaped spot in the center, 
should all be noted. 



POLYGONUM. 301 

The blowers, small and numerous, are supported on 
pedicels ; hence the cluster, which seems from its density a 
spike, is properly a raceme. They are regular, but very un- 
symmetrical, consisting of 5 sepals, 6 stamens, 2 stigmas and 
1 oyary. Like the flowers of Hepatica (p. 55) they are ajpeU 
alous, having but one set of envelopes. 

The ^ruzt. The ovary ripens into a lens-shaped, black, 
polished achenium still inclosed in the persistent, rose-col- 
ored calyx. The one seed contains a curved, inverted 
embryo on the side of a starchy albumen. 

The TTame. — Polygonum Persicdria is the classic name, 
the former meaning many-jointed (Gr. polys, many, gon^, 
joints) ; the latter, peach-leaved, alluding to the resemblance 
of the leaves to those of the Peach-tree {Persica, Tournef.). 
Other species of Polygonum will also be found flowering in 
June and July, and may be profitably studied with this, to 
mark the distinctive specific characters of each, viz. : 

P, Pennsylvdnicitm, the Pennsylvanian Knotweed, a na- 
tive species growing in wet places^ has the upper parts beset 
with minute glandular hairs (glandular-hispid), the flowers 
in dense racemes, stamens 8, etc. 

P. aviculare, the Bird Knotweed, prostrate in dooryards, 
has small (1' and less) leaves, and minute axillary flowers. 
The seeds furnish food for many wild birds. 

P. ampMMum (amphibious) grows either in water^ or on 
land. It is our largest native species, with leaves 5-7' long 
and bright red flowers in thick spikes 1-2' long. Stamens 
only 5. It is smooth when growing in water, viscid-hairy, 
on land.* 



* The "beautiful rosy petals of Polygonum amphibium are rich in honey. The 
Btamens, however, are short, and the pistil projects above the corolla. The nectar is 
unprotected and accessible even to small insects like the ant. The stamens ripen 
before the pistil, and any flying insect, however small, coming from above would 
assist in cross-fertilization. Creeping insects, on the contrary, would rob the honey 



202 



SPOTTED KNOTVVEED. 



ORGAN. 


Lite, ^abit, iViimber, Place, ^ind, Construction, i^orm, 
Placentation, /Size, Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


0, herb, in damp places, 1-2 ft., glandular-hispid above. 


Root, L.K. 


Annual, axial, branching. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


Herbaceous, erect, branching, with nodes swollen. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Alter. ,pin.-veined, ochreate, lanceolate, rough-edged, 2—5^. 


Infloresoence, P.K.A. Terminal^ racemes, pedunculate. 


Flower, N.C. 


Unsymmetricdl, perfect, apetalous, 1" diameter. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Polyphyllous, rosaceous, rose-colored. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Persistent, 5, imbricated, erect, oval. 


Corolla, F.Q. 


Wanting. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Wanting. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


8, hypogy nous, filament slender, included. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Innate, longitudinal, 2-celled, oval. 


Style, N.C.F. 


Two-parted, terminal. 


Stigma, N.F. 


Two, terminal, capitate. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


Double, superior, ovoid. 


Frait, N.D.KF.Q. 


1, indehfiscent, acheninm, lenticular with flat sides. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


1, albuminous, dicotyledonous. 


"LOOKLITY— Ditches, Terre Haute, Ind. (Date), June 12. 
CLASSIFICATION.-APETALOUS EXOGENS. 

—Order, Poltgonace^. 
NAME.— Latin, Polygoimm Feniisylvanicum Ij. 

—English, Pennsylvanlan Knotweed. 

REMARKS.— The upper- nodes and peduncles rough or hispid with minute 
stalked glands. 



without benefiting the plant. To prevent the visits of the latter, therefore, the hairs 
secrete a viscid fluid, which makes the stem slippery and difficult to climb. This 
plant, as its name denotes, may live in the water. In that case it is safe against those 
climbing pilferers, and then the stem is smooth, with no hairs and no sticky sub- 
stance. The arrangement is a special one, and furnished only when needed in the 
economy of the plant. 



POLYGONUM. 203 

P. orientdle, Lady's Thumb, a foreigner, about houses, tall 
(6 ft.) and stout, has the ochreae with a spreading border, the 
flower clusters large, rose-colored, stamens 7, etc. 

Classification.— The order Polygo:n-ace^— the Sorrel- 
^vorts — may be characterized as follows : 

Herbs with alternate leaves and swelled joints. 
Stipules in the form of ochrese sheathing the stem (a feature by 
which the order may be recognized at sight). 
Flowers apetalous, with a persistent calyx. 
Ovary 1 celled, with 2 or 3 styles or stigmas. 
Achenium with 1 erect albuminous seed. 

The Sorrel worts number 33 genera and 690 species abounding 
in all countries. Among these are — 

The Buckwheat Plant {Fagopyrum) indigenous in Northern Asia, 
now extensively cultivated as an article of food in general use, and by 
bee-keepers as a valuable honey plant. The small black kernel with 
white albumen, whence the ' flour ' is obtained, has, as every one knows, 
the form of a Beechnut (German, Buch). Hence its name, both English 
and classical, is equivalent to Beech- wheat. 

Rhubarb {Rheum Baponticum), also from Asia, is the well-known 
Pie Plant. The pulpy tissue of the petioles is made acid by the oxa- 
late of lime. Several species of Rheum yield the medicinal rhubarb- 
root of the shops. 

Dock (Bumex), both the Broad-leaved and the Narrow-leaved, 
everywhere abounds as a "pernicious weed;*' yet the roots of some 
species afford a valuable medicine. 

Sheep Sorrel (Bumex Acetoselld) has a pleasant acid foliage, and 
abounds in old fields and pastures where there is a lack of alkali in 
the soil, reddening with its minute flowers many a sterile knoll and 
hillside.*^ 

Scientific Terms. — Apetalous. Ciliate. Ochreae. Raceme. Spike. 

* In their modes of fertilization there is mnch diversity among the plants of this 
order. The various specie? of Rnmex are destitnle of honey, and wind-fertilized. 
Of the Polyganums, P. axiculdre^ the Bird Knotweed, is prohably self-fertilized. P. 
P^mcana is proterandrons, i^s stigmas ripening after tl^eir a nthe^-s have shed their 
pollen, while ihe Buckwheat is cViworphous^ some of it with long stamens and short 
styles, others with long styles and short stamens. 



204 THE SPURGES. 



LV. THE SPURGES. 

Description — Some of these homely plants are common 
throughout the country. They are noted for their acrid, 
milky juice. The attention of the botanist is due them on 
account of the strange construction of the flowers. The 
Spurge here figured will be found blossoming in June and 
after, in open fields and waysides. 

Analysis.— Gekerio Characters. — The Mowers of the 
Spurges are often too small to be understood without the aid 
of a microscope. The ^^ calyx ^^ is cup-shaped, bearing on 
its margin 5 or 4 glands of peculiar form and red or white 
color. Within it stand several or many stamens, each with a 
minute bractlet attached at its base, and a joint above. In 
the midst, is an ovary raised on a foot-stalk and tipped with 
3 styles, each 2-cleft, so that there are 6 stigmas (half- 
stigmas). 

Now what mean these bractlets, joints, and foot-stalk ? 
They imply, as botanists interpret, that each stamen is a 
flower of itself — a staminate, monandrous flower with a ped- 
icel in the axil of a bract ; that the ovary is a pistillate 
flower consisting of 3 united carpels ; and the ^' calyx '^ is an 
involucre inclosing the little flower-group. As it grows 
older, the pistillate flower arises on its pedicel quite outside 
of the involucre and ripens into 3 carpels, separable into 
3 nutlets, each with one seed. 

The milk-white juice already noted, flows from every 
incision, is always acrid in taste, in some species venomous, 
and it should be avoided. 

The Name EupTiorUa is the title of the genus charac- 
terized in the above description — a genus of vast extent, 
growing in all countries and embracing more than 700 spe- 



EUPHORBIA. 



305 



cies. The original one {E. officinarum?), discovered "by 
King Juba in Barbara, was so named by him in honor of 
Euphorbus, his chief physician. 




Fig. LV. — Eupli6rbia maculata : 2, section of an involucre showing the $ flowers ; 
3, a (5 flower with its bract ; 4, an involucre entire, showing the 1 $ flower, etc. ; 5, 
section of ovary ; 6, section of a seed of E. Ldthyris, with embryo, and {d) caruncle. 

Specific Character. — The species before us differs from 
all others in the following combination of characters : Root 



206 THE SPUEGES. 

annual. Stems prostrate, diffuse, reddish, puberulent, with 
opposite leaves and alternate branches. The leaves are of 
two sizes, 3" to 6" long, oblong, very oblique, obtuse, serru- 
late, with a red-brown spot in the center, and small fringed 
stipules at the base of the short petiole. The minute flow- 
3rs issue in dense, bracted, lateral clusters on a short pedun- 
cle, making no display. Glands of the involucre 4, red. 
Seeds ovoid, -i-angled, transversely rugous (wrinkled), with 
no caruncle, as some species have (6, d). This is ^. macu- 
lata, the Spotted Spurge. 

E, hypericifolia is another closely related and equally com- 
mon species. It differs only in being erect (1-2 ft.), with 
leaves larger (1'), often ^li^ilj falcate (curved like a sickle 
= falx)y and the flowers terminal. 

E. corollata, abundant westward, is our most showy kind. 
It stands erect 2-3 feet, bearing an umbel of white 5-lobed 
involucres. Its perennial root is a purgative more violent 
than Ipecac. 

Classification. — The order Euphorbia ce^ (the Spurge- 
worts) is very large, generally limited as follows : 

Plants with a milky, acrid juice. 
Flowers incomplete and imperfect. 
Ovary free, 3-celled, with 3 or 6 stigmas. 
Ovules suspended from the top of the cell. 
Fruit 3-lobed, separating into 3 carpels. 
Seeds 1 or 2 in each carpel, anatropous. 
Embryo straight, 2-lobed, in oily albumen. 

The Spurgeworts number 190 genera, 3200 species. As a whole, 
the milky juice is venomous, but many species afford valuable oils, 
resins, and farinaceous food. 

Castor on is expressed from the seeds of Ricinus commtinis, a well- 
known gigantic annual in Northern gardens, but a stately tree in the 
South. 

Croton Oil, a powerful purgative and external irritant, is from the 
seeds of Croton Tiglium of India. 



QUERCUS. 207 

The tonic Cascarilla is the bark of Croton Eleuteria of Brazil. 

Capers, used in pickles, sauces, etc., are the S-lobed fruit of Evphdr- 
bia LdihyrlSy often seen in our gardens. 

Tapioca is obtained from the Bitter Cassava {Jatropha Mdnihot), a 
shrub extensively cultivated in S. America. Its tuberous root, some- 
times weighing 30 lbs., is full of a poisonous juice. In preparing it 
for food, it is first scraped to a pulp and pressed to remove the poison. 
The cakes of cassiva thus formed are dried and baked, making a bread 
commonly used by the poorer classes. When the expressed juice is 
allowed to stand, a delicate starch is deposited, which, when washed 
and granulated on hot iron plates, forms the Tapioca of commerce. 

India Kubber is the thickened juice of Siphonia eldstka, a tree grow- 
ing in Guiana (see Chemistry, p. 227). 

Boxwood, used by engravers, and for mathematical instruments, and 
also cultivated for borders, is Buxiis sempervirens of Asia Minor. 

The so-called Blinding Tree {Exc(2cdrm Agdllocha) of the Moluccas 
has a juice so acrid that a drop falling into the eye will nearly blmd it 
— an accident which is said to have happened to sailors sent on shore 
to cut fuel. Even the smoke of the burning wood is dangerous. 



LVI. THE WHITE OAK.* 

^^Not a prince 
In all that proud old world beyond the deep 
E^er wore his crown as loftily as he 
Wears the green coronal of leaves with which 
Thy hand hath graced him.^* 

Bry-\nt. 

Description. — A large proportion of our forest trees are 
Oaks. Also in the open fields the Oaks stand solitary, in 
alternation with Elms and Maples, the charm of every rural 
scene. The White Oak will be our special theme to-day. Its 
flowers appear in May, soon after the expanding leaves. The 

♦ The Oak, Pine, etc., are fertilized by the wind. It is curious to notice, in con- 
trast with the insect-fertilized plants we have considered, the new floral adaptations 
which here exist. The long, lightly-hung, pendulous catkins are set in motion by the 
merest breath of air. The blossoms appear, too, in the early season when gales are 
moBt namerons and boisterous. 



208 



THE WHITE OAK. 



blossoms and fruit of any Oak will^ however, serve for this 
lesson. 

Analysis (generic). — The Oaks put forth two kinds of 
flowers on the same tree. The sterile or staminate ( 3 ) are 



^jj5>?ft'V"af:-':'^*-»* 




Fig. LVI.— Quercus alba. 

disposed in long, slender, pendulous clusters called aments 
or cathins^ several from one bud. They consist merely of a 
5-8-lobed calyx with 5-8 stamens. The fertile or pistillate 
(?) are solitary, or few together — each an ovary with 3 
stigmas invested with a scaly involucre. The ovary is 
3-celled^ with 2 pendulous, anatropous ovules in each cell. 



QUERCUS. 



209 



But in ripening, only 1 of the 6 ovules becomes a seed. By 
its fruit— the acorn, the Oaks are universally known. It is, 
by suppression, a 1-seeded nut partly immersed 
in a scaly, cup-form involucre. On dissection, 
we find in the seed an embryo with 2 massive 
cotyledons, the short radicle pointing upward, 
destitute of albumen. 

Ge7^mi7iatio7i . Under the Oaks at the time 
of flowering, the student will find acorns of the 
preceding year in all stages of germination 
shown in the cuts. The swelled co- 
tyledons (which are but transformed 
leaves) cannot extricate themselves 
from the shell, but burst it and thrust 
forth their petioles with the radicle 
and plumule between them, the 
former to grow downward, the 
latter upward. 

The Name of this noble 
genus is the classic Latin 
one — Quercusf' In the 
United States there grow 
as many as 25 species, and 
at least 6 or 8 in every 
vicinity. The practiced 
eye will distin- 
guish them by their 
tree-forms alone. All 
may know them by 
the forms of their 
leaves (Appendix). To identify them by verbal description is 





Acorn (seed of Quercus pains- 
tris) germinating: 6,section show- 
ing the radicle (r) which is to be- 
come the root, and the two cotyledons (c) which are 
to nourish it; 7, the radicle r, descending; 8 and 9, the 
radicle r, descending, and the plumule {p) ascending. 



* The Oak has been id^^ntified with man's history from the earliest ages. Its groves 
have been held sacred alike by Jews (Gen. xxi, 23), Greeks, Romans and Celts. The 



210 



THE WHITE OAK. 



often difficult, and a test of scholarship. (See Bot, and Flor., 

p. 305.) 

Specific Characters of the White Oak ( Q, alba L,). This 

tree is known at sight among its compeers by its light ash- 
colored bark breaking into square 
loose flakes on the surface. The 
leaves on short petioles are deeply 
divided into obtuse segments, 3 or 4 
on each side, none angular, all 
bounded by flowing outlines. From 
a bright green they change to violet 
and purple in Autumn, and many 
are persistent. A new feature in 
venation is here to be noticed. The 
leaves are straight-veined — the vein- 
lets continue straight through the 
blade to the margin. Compare the 
leaf of Beech, Chestnut ; also of the 
Apple. The stipules are fugacious. 
The .4 ^(9r;^. ripens in the Autumn following its flower ; is 

nearly sessile, 1' long, an ovoid nut one-third immersed in a 

hemispherical cup. The seed is well-flavored, and eaten by 

man as well as beast.* 




Wood of Oak, greatly magni- 
fied : a, medullary rays ; ^>,wood 
cells ; c, ducts. 



Oak was consecrated to Jupiter, even to a proverb ; and the Druids {drus, an Oak) 
are supposed to have been named from their superstitious regard for the Oak and the 
Mistletoe which grew upon ii. The Greeks adopted it as the emblem of hospitality. 
In Rome, to obtain a '' crown of Oak," it was necessary to be a citizen, to slay an 
enemy, to save the life of a Roman, or to reconquer a field of battle.— The Oak is, 
however, peculiarly a British tree, associated with English naval victories— with the 
** Walls of Old England " and the " hearts of Oak" that have beaten bravely within 
them. Many an Oak has become historic ; like the Oak of Torwood, within whose 
hollow slept the famous Wm. Wallace ; the Royal Oak that sheltered the fugitive 
Charles after the battle of Worcester ; Pope's Oak in Windsor Forest ; while in this 
country we recall the Charter Oak of Hartford. 

* Some species of Oak, as Red Oak {Q. rubra), Pin Oak ( Q. palustris) are biennial- 
fruited ; i. e., they require 2 years from flowering for their acorns to ripen. 

In England, whose Oak forests are now valued for timber, some centuries ago the 
Saxons valued them only for their acorns, or mast, on which their swine were fat- 



QUERCUS. 



211 




6, young branchlet of Q. alba, with amenta, &c. 2, a staminate (6) flower ; 3, the 
same ; 4, a pistillate ( ? ) flower with 5 stigmas ; 5, vertical section of the same ; 6, 
branchlet with full-grown leaves and mature fruit ; 7, section of the the acorn show- 
ing the two thick cotyledons and embryo at top ; 8, acorns of Q. robur. 



313 



THE WHITE OAK. 



OKGAN. 


Zife, ZTabit, iViimber, Place, /find, C^onstruction, i^brm, 
Placentation, Size, (Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


Tree deciduous, in forests, 2 ft. diam., 60 ft. high. 


Root, L.K. 


Axial, branching., extensive. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


Arboreous^ exogenous, erect, trunk terete. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Decid., cond., alt. , straight-veined, lane, serr., acum. 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


Axillary, $ long catkins, ? 3 together in a burr. 


Flower, N.C. 


6-parted, apetalous, monoecious, small. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Cup-fm^m^ 6-parted, cream-greenish. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Persist., 6, $ adherent, erect. 


Corolla, F.Q. 


None. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Xone. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


S-%0, filiform, showy, erect. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Oval, longitudinal, 2-celled. versatile. 


Style, N.C.F. 


3, united at base, short. 


Stigma, N.F. 


3, club-shaped (9 in the involucre). 


1 Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


3-celled, 6-ovuled, owid, or i)lano-convex. 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


Mostly 3 nuts in a burr {prickly involucre). 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


1, anatropous, white, cotyledous,farinaceou'^. 


JaOCkJ^TY.— ChesterJiem^ ^"- S., woods, (Date), J\Iay 19, 1836. 
CLASSIFICATION.— APETALOUS EXOGENS. 
Order. — Cupulifbr^, or Mastworts. 

Natvtf;.— Latin, Castaiiea vesca liinn. 

—English, Chestnut. 
Remarks. — Fniit sweet and nutritious, falling in October. Timber light, 
very durable. 



tened. The right of feeding hogs in the woods, called pannage, "became a valuable 
kind of property. With this right Monasteries were endowed, and it often formed 
part of the dowry of the king's daughters. To regulate and secure these rights, rigid 
laws were enacted and records kept. ^Tien William the Conqueror converted the 
New Forest into a hunting-ground, the anger of the people was due to the loss of food 
for their droves of swine. 



QUERCUS. 213 

In this connection, let the student analyze the Chestnut 
Tree, the Beech, or the Hazel. A sample tablet is annexed. 

Classiflcation. — The order Cupulifer^ — the Mast- 
worts — is thus limited to 

Trees or shrubs with very deciduous stipules. 

Leaves alternate, simple, straight-veined. 

Flowers apetalous, monoecious, the $ in catkins. 

Ovary adherent, with all but one cell and ovule abortive. 

Fruit a nut, one or more together in a cup or sack. 

Seed one, filled by the embryo with its massive cotyledons. 

Albumen none. 

The Mastworts number 8 genera and 250 species. Among them 
are the Oaks, Beech,* Chestnut, Iron- wood, Hazel, etc., important for 
their timber and fruit. 

Chestnuts are the fruit of Castdnea msca.^ The American variety 
is smaller and sweeter than the Spanish Chestnut of Europe. Beech- 
nuts, the fruit of our Fagus ferruginea, are very sweet and nutritious. 
Filberts, the fruit of the Hazel {Gorylus), come from Europe. Our own 
Hazel-nut is nearly as good. The acorns of the White Oak and Chest- 
nut Oak {Q. Prinos) are eatable. 

Nutgalls are produced on the leaves and twigs of Oaks by the punc- 
ture of insects depositing their eggs. The nutgalls of commerce used 
in making ink, etc., come from Asia Minor. They abound in tannic 
acid, a principle also found in the bark of some species of Oak used in 
tanning leather. 

The timber especially of the Live Oak {Q. mrenfi), White Oak, and 
English Oak (Q. rohur), is of gi^eat value in shipbuilding and all 

* To the German name of the Beech (buch) we owe onr English word hook, the 
sides of thick hooks having formerly been made of beech boards. 

No tree of the forest has its tint of trunk more varied by mosses, lichens and hand- 
some kinds of fungus that always diversify its dark-gi-ay bark. Virgil loved a Beech- 
tree for the abundant shadow it gave him, and Gray wandered to be soothed among 
the famous Burnham Beeches, which he says " are always dreaming out their old stories 
to the winds." 

t In parts of Europe the Chestnut is highly valued as an article of food, and the 
tree is extensively grown for this product alone. Many centuries ago Martial said : 
" For Chestnuts roasted by a gentle heat 
No city can the learned Naples beat." 

The Chestnut is yet roasted daily there as well as in many other Italian cities ,- and 
similar scenes are enacted on our own street-comers. In the south of France it forms 
the common vegetable diet of the peasantry. 



214 THE WHITE OAK. 

mechanic arts where toughness, strength, and durability are requisite. 
Th© wood of Chestnut is eminently durable ; that of Beech, Ironwood 
(Carpinus) and Liver- wood (Ostrya), is hard and compact, and therefore 
serviceable for joiners' tools. 

LVII. THE WHITE PINE. 

Description. — The White Pine grows in any soil where 
it is planted ; but its native forests and groves are gen- 
erally associated with a dry sandy loam. Our Pilgrim 
Fathers found here one continuous forest waving with 
Pines, where now are cities, towns and plantations. On 
the plains of Dartmouth and Saratoga once towered majes- 
tic Pines more than 200 feet. To-day, on the Sierra Moun- 
tains, the Lambert Pines 300 feet in height lift their im- 
perial heads. 

Analysis (generic). The Z^ eaves of the Pines are truly 
evergreen, persisting in all their verdure through the Winter 
until those of the next season are full grown. Their form 
is as characteristic as that of the cones. They are acerous or 
needle-shaped, angular^ collected in little fascicles (bundles) 
of 2s, 3s, or 5s, bound together by a sheathing bract at the 
base. In 2s they are semi-terete ; in 3s and 5s triangular, 
with serrulate edges. 

The ^towers come with the new leaves. They are of 
two kinds, both generally found on the same tree, i. e., 
monoecious. The sterile ( 3 ) flowers are in small, oblong, 
dense, reddish aments clustered around the base of the new 
shoots. Each ament is invo]ucrate with a few scales, and 
consists of stamens alone. The anthers are 2-celled and 
contain triple pollen grains. The fertile ( 9 ) aments are lat- 
eral, consisting of spirally imbricated scales (open carpels) 
each bearing at its base 2 ovules turned downward, although 
not inverted on their stalks (orthotropous). 



PINUS. 



2U 



The J^7tiit is not matured until the second year after^ its 
flowers {hienniaVj, It is then a cone formed of the grown 
and hardened fertile ament, with its scales generally thick- 




Pig. LVn.— Piniis Strobus, a young tree and grove. 

ened at the edge, at last relaxed and spreading, freeing the 
2-winged seeds nurtured in the lap of each. The student 
will not fail to notice the total absence of a style or stigma ; 



«16 



THE WHITE PIKE. 




Pinus Strobue : 1, a branchlet with staminate flowers ; 2, branchlet with pistillate 
flowers ; 3, a carpellary scale with its bract ; 4, the same seen from within, with its 
2 ovules turned downward ; 5, an anther ; 6, a grain of pollen (triple) ; 7, a ripe cone 
with its scales relaxed. 

neither is there any proper ovary or seed-vessel. The car- 
pellary scales which should invest the ovules and seeds, only 
subtend them ; hence they are truly nahed.^ The embryo, 
resting in oily albumen, has 3-12 cotyledons. 

* Fertilization is effected by the direct application of the pollen to the ovnifi 
Instead of to an intervening stigma. The wind is the agent for conveying the pollen 
to its place. (See Note, p. 31.) There is therefore no need of attracting insects by bril« 
Uant colors and pleasing perfumes ; hence the flowers are inconspicuous and inodorous. 



piKus. 217 

The Name of this grand and useful genus is the ancient 
Latin term — Pinus^ from the Celtic pin or pen, a rock or 
mountain. The White Pine^ that species to which our 
figures chiefly refer^ is Pinus Strobus — the '^Weymouth 
Pine '^ of the English parks. This is the tallest of all oui 
forest trees, many with a diameter of 4 or 5 feet, rising to 
100 and 140 feet. The trunks perfectly straight, erect, free 
from limbs, extend f their whole height, affording a strong, 
soft, light, and durable timber, more extensively used in 
architecture than any other kind. 

Specific Ohakactee. — The Soot of P. Strohis pene- 
trates the soil but 2 or 3 feet, and is quickly dissolved into 
irregular branches and branchlets, filling a space of 30 to 40 
feet diameter.* 

The Trun/c is cylindric, erect, with a smooth bark in trees 
less than a foot in diameter and in old forest trees regularly 
broken into long narrow plates. The branches are given off 
in whorls and at nearly right angles, one new whorl each 
year. In forests, all but the upper branches soon perish, 
and these stretching out over the other trees render the 
Pines conspicuous in the distant landscape. 

The ZfCaves are in fascicles of 5s, and 4' in length. 

The Cones, nearly 6' long when ripe, have scales slightly 
if at all thickened at their edges, thus quite unlike the other 
Pines. Compare this with — 

P. rigida, the Pitch Pine, which has its leaves in 3s, cones 
ovoid, with scales thick-edged and clawed at the end, and 
bark rough and black, a tree 30 or more feet high. 

P. resindsa, Red Pine, has leaves m 2s, cones ovoid-conical, 



* The roots of tlie White Pine are almost incomiptible. In clearing tip new lands 
where the Pines have been felled or blown down, the stumps with their roots are 
often taken up and used in making a fence, by setting the under surface of the roots 
to form the outer or the finished side. Fences so made exhibit, after a hundred 
years, few signs of ^qc^lj.— Emerson. 

in 



218 THE HEMLOCK. 

the scales not claw-tipped, bark rather smooth, tree 50-80 
feet high ; both species native northward. 

P. palustris, Long-leaved Pine, in the lowland forests of 
the South, has leaves in 3s, and 10-15' long and cones of 
nearly equal length. 

LVIII. THE HEMLOCK. 

Description. — The Hemlock grows in the forests of all 
the States west to Oregon, especially loving a granitic soil ; 
and in Canada and New England, the tree and its products 
are so common that Hemlock is almost a household word. 
Flowers and fruit (last yearns cones) may be found in May.* 

Analysis. — Generic Chaeacters. — The leaves are sol- 
itary (not fascicled), short, of one kind, and persistent two 
years. The trunks are of that class called excurrent — run- 
ning distinct through to the summit of the pyramidal head. 
Here also we have flowers of two kinds (monoecious), both ir 
aments, and on the same tree. Mark their situation, not on 
the new shoots, as in the Pines, but on the branchlets of the 
preceding year ; the $ aments in the axils of the upper leaves ; 
the ? terminal. The cones mature in the Autumn of the 
first year. Their scales are thin-edged, never embossed nor 
clawed, each 2-seeded, and subtended by a bract. 

The Name given to the genus possessing these traits is 
AUes — the ancient Latin for Spruce. It comprises the 
Spruces, Firs, and Hemlocks, evergreen, resinous trees, like 
the Pines except in the above obvious distinctions. 

Specific Characters. — The Hemlock when young has a 
peculiar grace both of form and foliage. With age, it 
becomes rugged and unsightly. In forests, the trunk is 

* Specimens of our native Spruce or Fir, or of the Norway Sprace, so commor 
In our parks and door-yards, wUl answer for this study. 



ABIES. 



219 



often sixty feet higli^, beset above with knots among its 
scragged branches. The leaves are short-linear, silvery 
beneath, on delicate petioles, spirally arranged, yet so 






Fig. Lym.— Abies Canadensis : 1, a branch with fertile flowers at $ , and sterile 
at ^ ; 2, a scale, with its short bract ; 3, a cluster of 6 flowers (stamens) ; 4, a scale 
with its 2 perfected, winged seeds, seen from within. 

inclined to a horizontal position as to appear 2-ranked on 
the slender spray. The $ aments are very small, scarcely 



220 



THE HEMLOCK. 



2" long, each Avith 10-20 anthers. The pollen grains are 
single. The ? aments are terminal, ovoid, 3" long, composed 
of imbricated green scales (carpels). The fruit is an oblong 
brown cone three-fourths of an inch long, pendant on the ends 
of the slender branchlets. The scales are about 20, rounded^ 
2-seeded. The seeds are winged, naked as in the Pines. 
This is Abies Canadensis. 

The Order. — From these examples the student will 
apprehend the nature of the Ookifer^ (Conifers) or Cone- 
bearers. 

Trees and shrubs with resinous juice. 

Leaves evergreen, awl-sliaped or needle-shaped. 

Flowers in aments, monoecious, without calyx or corolla. 

Ovary an open scale 2-ovuled, with no stigma. 

Seeds with pericarp, truly naked. 

Classification. — With their wood growing by external 
layers and the embryo of 2 or more cotyledons, the 

Coniferae are Exogens. But 

4®\ 



they differ from other Exo- 
gens in having no stigma, 
and open carpels never in- 
closing the naked seeds. 
Hence the division of the 
Exogens into two classes 
— the Gynmosperms {gym- 
nos, naked, spermay seeds), 
including the Coniferae, and 
the Angiosperms {angios, a 
vessel, and spermd), includ- 
ing all other Exogens. 




5, Pitted wood -cells of Pine greatly mag- 
nified ; m, medullary rays. 



The Conifers. — Here are 
associated 20 genera and 100 
species, '' sons of the forest and forest kings, gigantic in size, noble in 
aspect, robust in constitution." They inhabit all climates, but are most 



ABIES. 221 

abundant in the North Temperate Zone. Timber and turpentine are 
their special products.* 

The Douglass Fir {Abies Dougldsii) of Oregon, and the Red wood 
{Sequoia sempermrens) of California, are frequently 12 feet in diameter 
and 200 feet high. The Lambert Pine (P. Lambertidna) of California, 
a tree of faultless symmetry, is often 12 feet in diameter and 300 feet 




high. But over all towers the Giant 

Cedar of the Sierras {Sequoia gigdn- 

tea). One grove in Calaveras County contains 90 so-called *' Big 

Trees," measuring from 20 to 36 feet in diameter and 350 in altitude ! f 

* The wood of the Pines, Cedars, and of the Conifers generally, is remarkably dis- 
tinguished by rows of circular disks whicli under the microscope appear like pearls 
bedecking each wood-cell. This form, called pitted tissue, has often been detected 
in the fossils of bituminous coal, thus revealing the origin of that useful mineral. 

t Such is the perfect symmetry of these gigantic trees that the spectator finds it 
difficult to realize their enormous proportions. "If," says Whitney, ''one cofuld be 



233 



THE HEMLOCK. 



ORGAN. 


Zife,irabit, ^'^umber. Place, Zind, Construction, i^'orm, 
Placentation,*Size, Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


A tree of many years growth, 50 feet high, evergreen. 


Root, L.K, 


Not observed. [branches. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


An erect, short, cylindrical trunk, excurrent, with many ' 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


0, spiral, acerous, sharp, subsessile, sub-U-sided, 1". 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


In cone-shaped aments, axillary and terminal. 


Flower, N.C. 


Monoecious, naked. 1 


Calyx, F.Q. 


None. \lary and terminal. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


6 The sterile flowers in small, ovoid, red aments, axU- 


CoroUa, F.Q. 


None. [with green scales. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


? The fertile flowers in a cylindrical, terminal ament, 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


Numerous, crowded, with short filaments. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


2-celled, opening lenfjthwi e, pollen grains triple. 


Style, N.C.F. 


None. 


Stigma, N.F. 


None. {imbricated, subtending 2 erect ovules. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


Carpellary scales rounded, open, thin-edged, spirally 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


A cylindric, pendent cone, cinnamon-colored, 6' long. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


2, orthotropous, flattish, light-brown, winged. 


LOCALITY.— 7w Central Park, New York. (Date) April, 1878. 
CLASSIFICATION.— GYMNOSPERMOUS EXOGENS. 
Order.— CoNiFERJE, The Conifers. 
Name.— Latin, Albies excelsa, 

—English, Norway Spruce. 
"REUKKKfi.— 'Tree pyramidal in its form. 

1 



transported to Washington and placed beside the Capitol, its summit towering far 
above the statue which surmounts the dome of the noble structure, the effect would 
be overwhelming." Various estimates have been made of the age of the Big Trees 
of the Calaveras Grove, and it has been poetically asserted that they were in their 
prime when Noah built the Ark, and may have been ' contemporary with the crea- 
tion of Man." The geologists of the California survey fixed the age of one tree that 
was cut down at 1300 years. (We counted 1362 layers.) Six feet from the ground it 
was 23 feet in diameter inside the bark (that being about 15 inches thick). 



SABAL PALMETTO. 223 

Timber of excellent quality is afforded by all these species. That 
of the Redwood, as well as most of the Cedars, is almost indestructi- 
ble. Red Cedar {Juniperus Virginiana) is used in the manufacture of 
lead pencils. The Temple of Solomon was built of the Cedars of Leb- 
anon (Gedrus Libdni), The Southern Pine is heavy and fragrant with 
resin, affording excellent timber for floors. The Norfolk Island Pine 
(Eutassa excelsa) is celebrated for its timber and for its stately beauty. 

Turpentine is distilled from the pitch which flows from the Southern 
Pine ; resin is the residuum after distillation. Burgundy pitch is 
obtained from P. sylvestris of Europe. Canada balsam flows from the 
"blisters" in the bark of our beautiful AMes balsdmea. 

Tannic acid abounds in the bark of the Hemlock ; hence it is, like 
the Oak, extensively used in tanning leather. 

The Yew tree (Taxus) figures in history as the favorite wood for 
making bows, once the formidable weapon of the English yeoman. 
Our Yew is a straggling shrub, never attaining the dimensions of a 
tree. 

LIX, THE PALMETTO.^ 

Description. — In the forests that skirt the sandy coasts 
of the Southern States, the renowned Palmetto reigns. It 
is a tree arising 25 to 40 feet, with trunk erect, simple, 
10-20' in diameter, all developed from one terminal bud. 
From this bud, in early Spring, a new set of leaves is an- 
nually produced above the old before they fall. Hence the 
tree is evergreen. 

Analysis. — The Ste//i of the Palmetto exhibits new 
features especially worthy of study. Outside it is rugged in 
aspect, especially above, where it is beset with the split bases 
of former leaf -stalks. The trunks of other forest trees are 
largest at the base, diminishing upward. Not so with the 
Palmetto. Its trunk either continues of uniform size, or 
perceptibly enlarges toward the summit, there attaining its 

* The Palmetto is the emblem of South Carolina. The massive terminal bud, 
consisting of numerous undeveloped leaves, is much prized as a vegetable, whence 



224 



THE PALMETTO. 



largest diameter. For these and other peculiarities, the stem 
of the Palm is called a caudex. 




metto. From a photo- 
graph. Scene in Florida, 
showing Fort Matanzas in 
the distance. 



The internal struc- 
ture, SLSseenin sections, f ' ^W^^v^(/P ' xX5>^N5?^^^-^=~i 
may now be compared with that of Apple tree. Elm, Pine, 
and other Exogenous trees (p. 109). The contrast is great. 



the tree is called the Cabbage Palmetto. To secure the bud, however, the entire tree 
has to be sacrificed. The wood does not splinter easily, and, on Aat account, was 
employed in building Fort Moultrie in the Revolutionary War (Barnes-:' s History of 
the United States, p. 170\ Blocks from the softer portions of the trunk are used in 
the South as a substitute for scrubbing brushes. The larger leaves serve for thatch- 
ing and are woven into baskets or mats, while the smaller are made into hats aDd 
bannets. 



SABAL PALMETTO 



225 



In Exogens, the bark, wood and pith are clearly defined. 
In Palmetto, all these are commingled ; no separable bark, 
no woody layers, no medullary rays. The wood exists in 
threads or fibers extending lengthwise, traceable from the 
bases of the petioles down through the soft pith or cellular 
tissue, at length turning outward and ending in or at 'the 
surface where the bark should be. The composition of 
these wood-fibers or bun- 
dles may be understood 
from the cut, which 
represents the shaving of 
a Rattan magnified 100 
diameters. In a single 
fiber there are annular 
cells, spiral vessels, dot- 
ted ducts, and wood-cells, 
all lying in the cellular 
tissue, a, a.^ 

The ZfCaves are com- 
paratively few and im- 
mense, f 7-12 feet in 
length, including the 
smooth, channeled peti- 
ole. The blade is typi- 
cally fan-shaped {flahelliform),^\i\i the border palmately cleft 
into many segments, in vernation j^Ztm^e, and parallel-veined. 




Various kinds of vessels in a wood-fiber of 
Bamboo or Rattan : a, cells of parenchyma ; 6, 
annular cells ; c, spiral vessels ; d, porous duct ; 
e, wood-cells. 



* Woody stems, whether exogenous or endogenous, are chiefly composed of the 5 
classes of cells exhibited in the cut. The difference lies in their arrangement. The 
study of the vegetable cell, in all its varieties, is of gi-eat interest and importance, but 
belongs to a higher department of Botany than is admissible in this work. See Phy- 
siological Botany, in the Class Book, p. 130. 

t Much has been written of the beauty of the Tropical Palm, decorated with its 
waving crown. But the Eastern traveler flods a forest of Date Palms, on the banks 
of the Nile, far less imposing than our own groves of Oak, Birch and Maple. Below 
is only a vista of naked, monotonous columns, and above a scanty foliage through 
which the rays of the sun pour in undiminished intensity. 



226 



THE PALMETTO. 



The F'lowerSy open in June, are perfect, sessile, on a 
long branching spadix with bracts or a double spathe at each 
joint. They have a double perianth, of 3 sepals and 3 petals, 

6 stamens, and a 
triple pistil which 
in fruit becomes 
a single 1-seeded, 
round drupe, like a 
date. 

The Name. — 
Sabal Palmetto is 
the only Palm in 
the United States 
which attains the 
dimensions of a 
tree. Two other 
species of this ge- 
nus, the Dwarf and 
the Saw Palmetto, 
form dense thick- 
ets in the wilds of 
the South. They 
are mere shrubs, 
with caudex pros- 
trate or creeping. 
The Blue Palmetto, 
with caudex 2 or 3 
feet long, erect or 
prostrate, has ^polygamous [some 3 , some 9 , and some 
(perfect) g ] yellowish flowers, and is assigned to another 
genus — Chamcerops Hystrix. We have no other Palms. 

The Cocoanui is a fruit of similar construction, and its 
seed is, perhaps, the largest of all seeds. Let it be analyzed 




1, Inflorescence of Chamserops humilis, in its spathe ; 
2, a branch of the same with the fruit ripening ; 3, a 
sterile 6 flower ; 4, a fertile ? flower ; 5, a ripe fruit ; 
6, a section of another variety, showing the seed ; 7, 
section of seed showing the embryo. (From LindleyS 



SABAL PALMETTO. 



227 



in this connection. Like other drupes^ this also has two 
coats, the outer of loose, woody, brown fibers, the inner a 
shell of bone. At the apex of the shell are 3 apertures — the 
scars of the stigmas. AYithin the shell is only 1 cell and 1 
seed, although the ovary was 3-celled and 3-OYuled. The 
cut (11) shows a section of the seed — the white, fibrous, oily 
albumen with a cavity which contained the milk — and at e, 
the embryo, 1-cotyledoned, in a separate, smaller cavity ; 





11, section of the seed of a Cocoa- 
nut ; e, the embryo ; 12, Cocoa-nut 
germinating. 

(12) shows its germination 
— the growing plumule p, 
the growing radicle r, and 
the enlarged cotyledon c^ 
partly filling the cavity. 
Classification (ordinal). — The order Palmace^ is esti- 
mated at seventy-three genera and four hundred species. 
Nearly all are natives of the Torrid Zone in both hemispheres. 
The Palms rank among the noblest of the Vegetable King- 
dom, whether we regard their towering stems, their mag- 
nificent leaves, their numberless flowers, or their valuable 
products. The trunks of some attain the height of one hun- 
dred and eighty and a diameter of five feet. 

Calamus Budentum, of the Malaccas, grows in the form of a cable 
five hundred feet in length dangling from trees to which it clings by the 



228 THE PALMETTO. 

hooks on the end of its leaf-stalks. The Date Palm develops two hun- 
dred thousand flowers on a single spadix. Among its products are 
starch, sugar, oil, wax, edible fruits, material for clothing, building, 
paper-making, and fermented liquors. 

The Cocoanut Palm {Gocosnucifera) is perhaps put to a greater num- 
ber of uses than any other tree in the world. Its wood, called porcupine 
wood, takes a beautiful polish. The fibers of the outer covering of the 
fruit are very durable, and are manufactured into cordage, matting, 
door-mats, scrubbing brushes, etc. The inner shell is made into water- 
dippers. The milk contained in the cavity of the albumen is a beverage 
as delicious as the albumen is wholesome. The nuts by pressure yield 
the rich oil of cocoa. From the wounded spadix flows a sweet sap, a 
quart a day for several months. If boiled, it produces sugar. When 
fermented, it is called palm- wine or toddy, and when distilled, the vile 
jiquor, arrack. The leaves furnish thatch for dwellings and material 
ibr fences, hats, baskets and buckets, and even paper which is writ- 
ten upon with a style. Potash in abundance is obtained from the 
ashes.* 

The Sago Palm {Sagus Bumphii) of Malacca, and other Palms, afford 
the starchy food called Sago. This exists in the cellular tissue of the 
stem, whence it is washed out and granulated. A single tree will }T^eld 
six hundred to eight hundred pounds. 

The Date Palm {Phcenix dactylifera), of Northern Africa, supplies 
that sweet and delicious fruit, the date, which furnishes the tribes of 
Fezzan and Barbary nine-tenths of their living. 

* " After an abundant repast, the traveller inquires of his Indian host, Who in this 
desert country furnishes you with all these hixuries ? My Cocoa-nut tree, is the reply. 
The acidulous drink tasted on your arrival was drawn from the fruit before it was 
ripe. This kernel, so delicate in flavor, is the ripe fruit. This milk which you find 
so agreeable is drawn from the nut. This cabbage, so delicate in flavor, is the top of 
the Cocoa-nut tree— a costly dish, however, for it takes the life of the tree. This wine 
is Palm-wine, drawn from the thick leaves sheathing the flowers. Exposed to the 
sun, it becomes vinegar ; and by distillation we get this good brandy which you have 
tasted. This juice also supplies the sugar for these sweetmeats. Out of the shell of 
the nut we make these vessels and utensils. Nor is this all. This habitation itself I 
owe to these trees. With their wood my cabin is constructed, and with their plaited 
leaves it is thatched. Made into an umbrella T walk under their shade. My clothing 
is spun from their leaf -fibers, and these mats so generally useful are made from them 
also. This sifter was ready-made to my hands in the axils of the leaf-stalks. With 
these same leaves we make sails for our ships, and for caulking them nothing is so 
good as the fibers which envelop the nut. Of this, too, we make all sorts of strings, 
cables, and cordage. Finally, the delicate oil which has seasoned many of our dishes 
and that which burns in my lamp, is expressed from the fresh, ripe kernel.'" 



ARIS^MA. 839 

Rotang {Calamus Budentum, etc.), growing slender and to g^eat 
length, affords rattan for canes, chair-bottoms, etc. 

Ivory Palm (Phytelephas) of the Magdalena River region, contains in 
its seeds a compact albumen — the vegetable ivory of commerce. 

The bruised fruit of Ulais Quineensis yields the palm-oil which is 
imported from Africa in immense quantities, for soapmaking and other 
Mses. 

Classification (proyincial). — In a higher sense the 
Order of the Palms represents the grand province of the 
Endogens, as the Koseworts^ the Mastworts^ etc., represent 
the Exogens. These two grand divisions constitute the 
snbkingdom Phenogamia or Flowering Plants. They are 
severally marked by the following five characters, which we 
place in contrast and arrange in the descending order of 
their value, that is, their constancy : 

THE EXOGENS.* THE ENDOGENS.* 

Embryo with 2 or more cotyledons. Embryo with one cotyledon. 

Radicle forming an axial root. Radicle never forming axial root. 

Stem growing by accretions exter- Stem growing by scattered internal 

nal to the wood. wood-fibers or bundles. 

Flowers 4 or 5 (rarely 3) parted. Flowers almost always 3-parted. 

Leaves very generally net-veined. Lvs. very generally parallel-veined. 



LX. JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. 

Description. — The voice of this little declaimer is heard, 
if at all, in the flowery month of May, throughout the damp 
old woods. The plant stands about a cubit in height, with 
club and canopy and lurid coloring — a form so singular that 
to be seen is to be remembered. 



* To apply the above classification, let the student now determine the Province to 
which the foregoing orders — any or all of them — belong. And generally, it will here- 
after be his pleasure to view all plants in the light of these distinctions. 



230 



JACK-I.Sr-THE-PULPIT. 




Fig. LX— Arissema trip, ^yllum : 6, spadix with 6 and ? flowers ; c, flowers enlarged 
d, spadix with 6 flowers ; o, STith ? flowers ; h, berries ripe ; g, berry dissected. 



ARIS^MA. 23] 

Analysis. — The Siem, The base of the plant is enlarged 
into a kind of bulb, which being solid (not made up of scales) 
is called a covm. The shape of this bulb has given to it the 
common name of Indian Turnip. It consists of starchy mat- 
ter pervaded by a fluid fiercely acrid to the taste, and well mer- 
iting the name " Dragon-root.'^ * Encircling the edge of the 
corm is a row of fibrous roots. Evidently the corm is the stem; 
there is no other. A scape and 2 leaf-stalks arise from the 
corm, the former inclosed below by the sheathing bases of the 
stalks. The leaves are 2, trif oliolate. The leaflets are often as 
large as 4' by 6', ovate, inclining to rJiomiiCy entire, acuminate. 
The venation is pinnate and netted, with marginal veins. 

Injlorescence, The scape varies in height from 6' to 
2 feet, but is never so high as the leaves. At the top is a 
club-shaped inflorescence called spadix, protected by a large 
bract named spatlie. The spathe is convolute below and 
inflected above, colored with stripes of purple within. The 
spadix is naked and brown above, bearing the flowers below. 

The JPlowers are monmcious ( 8 , monos, one, oihos, house) 
J, c, sometimes dioecious {dis, two, oilcoi, houses), d, e. When 
together, the ^ are above the $ , and consist of 4 or more ses- 
sile anthers opening at the top. The $ fertile flower is 
merely a 1-celled ovary with flat stigma and 2 or more ovules 
erect from the bottom of the cell {g\ 

A section of the seed [g) shows a straight embryo in the 
midst of fleshy albumen with only 1 cotyledon. The fruit 
is a mass of scarlet, several-seeded berries. 

The ITaine of this plant is AriscBma tripTiyllum — Ari- 



* The starch in many species of this plant is nsed as food. In the days of Queen 
Elizabeth it furnished the stiffening for the enormous lawn ruffs then worn by gen- 
tlemen and gentlewomen. These became so large that it is said the Queen placed a 
guard at the city gates to cut down any ruffs that were over a yard wide. They needed 
a very strong starch, such as was made from this root ; though it was, says the old 
herbalist, "most hurtfull to the hands of the laundresse, for it chappeth, blistereth 
and maketh the handes rough and withall smarting." 



232 



JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. 



saema being an alteration of Arum, its former name ; triphyl- 
liim, the same as trifoliate^ or trifoliolate. 

AriscBma Dracontiujn^ Green Dragon, another species 
growing in marshes, has its one leaf divided into about 9 
leaflets, and its spadix verj long-pointed. 






7, 0r6ntmin Americaniim ; s, the spadix destitute of a spathe ; 8, Calla paliistris ; 
&, a spath€ and spadix ; 9, a flower with 6 stamens and an ovary ; 10, cross-cection of 
a berry, showing 6 ceils. 

The Golden Club {Orontmm) growing in rocky rills, may 
be examined in connection with the Arisaemas. Its yellow 
spadix has no spathe and is covered above with perfect flow- 
ers. Also our native Oalla (C. palustris) growing in swamps, 
whose short spadix is covered with perfect flowers and invested 
with a white spathe. 

The favorite House Calla [RicJidrdia Afncana) is a native 
of S. Africa. Here, also, the flowers cover the whole spadix, 
the 3 above and the ? below. The leaves of this and of the 
two preceding are decidedly parallel-veined. 

Classification. — The order Arace^ — the Aroids^-ln- 
eludes the above and many other genera. We may briefly 
deflne the order as follows : 



ORCHIS. 233 

Herbs pungent and acrid, with, rhizomes or corms. 
Leaves often net- veined, generally parallel- veined. 
Flowers small, crowded on a spadix. 
Ovary free, with a sessile stigma. 
Embryo with one cotyledon. 

The Aroids are chiefly tropical, numbering 46 genera and 240 spe- 
Aes, They are generally acrid, and some are dangerously poisonous. 

The Dumb Cane {DiffenMehia) of the W. Indies is so called because, 
if tasted, it causes the tongue to swell and fill the mouth. 

Sweet Flag {Acorus) grows in cold streams of the Northern States. 
Its long, thick rhizomes are sought for their warm, pungent, aromatic 
taste. 

Galddium and Golocdsia are cultivated for their large, ornamental 
leaves ; also for their tuberous, edible roots. 

Scientific Terms. — Dioecious. Monoecious. Spadix. Spathe. 

LXI. THE SHOWY ORCHIS. 

Description. — With eager longing and patient search 
the botanist expects the Eose-tinted Orchis in the late days 
of May, when Spring is fading into Summer. It belongs, 
with Lady's Slipper, to a high-toned, fastidious race, very 
choice of its soil in old rich woods, here and there, and soon 
retreating when its haunt is discovered. It will be promptly 
recognized by its two obovate, shining leaves, 4-angled scape, 
and several rose-colored flowers. 

Analysis. — The root, bract, leaves, and scape, we leave 
to the discrimination of the student. Let him note every 
point of form or structure whereby the species may be dis- 
tinguished from others. 

The I^lower is constructed after a pattern quite new and 
extraordinary. In general aspect it seems bilabiate. Beneath 
is seen the inferior [adherent), twisted ovary. A careful 
analysis will show the perianth composed of 3 sepals in an 
outer whorl and 3 petals in an inner one. The lower petal 



234 



THE SHOWY ORCHIS. 




Pig. LXI.— Orchis spectabilis : 2, a flower ; I, the lip ; 5, the spur ; o, the twisted 
ovary ; 3, the column (enlarged) ; b, the place of the sticky glands at the ends of the 
stalks of the pollinia, which are seen partly extracted from the anther cells ; a, the 
stigmatic surface ; 4, a pollinium (pollen mass) adhering to the finger, at first €rect, 
soon declined as when attached to a moth's head, in order to be thrust in the face of 
the stigma. 



ORCHIS. 



235 



is the lower lip, and it is at the 
base produced backward into a slen- 
der spur — the nectary — seen under 
the ovary. The two upper petals 
are somewhat united, coyering the 
stamens like a hood. The 3 sepals 
are also ascending and converging 
with them — all rose-purple, form- 
ing a vaulted upper-lip.* 

Instead of stamens and pistils, 
there is an oval, concave mass called 
the column — a stamen and pistil 
combined. In it are 2 anther-cells^ 
and a broad stigma-surface between 
them. Each cell contains a club- 
shaped mass of granular pollen, 
erect on a stipe attached to a sticky 
gland on the stigma. These pollen 
masses are the polliniay and such 
flowers are called gyna7idrous, f 

J^ertilizatio?z. In the Orchis it becomes an interesting 
question how the poUinia shut up in the 2 cells c c can be 
brought into contact with the stigma at a ? Kepeated obser- 




5, Calopdgon pulchellus — lip 
on the upper side (?), column 
on the lower. 



* Strictly speaking, the lower-lip ; for by the twisting of the ovary half-a-tum the 
whole flower is inverted. In the elegant Grass Pink {Calopogon) the ovary is not 
twisted ; and the lip proper, the lip consisting of one petal, is on the upper side of the 
flower. 

t Every part of the Orchis seems purposely shaped to perform some special work 
in its economy. The upper portion protects the delicate pollen-masses ; the hinder- 
part is prolonged into a tube which does not yield nectar until it is gnawed ; and the 
lower portion is a tempting and convenient alighting stage for insects. Even the 
pollen-masses are specialized in a marvellous degree, and are usually associated with 
mechanic contrivances intended for adherence to the probosces and bodies of butter- 
flies and moths. Their perfumes are as various as their shapes, and even the honey 
seems to have a variety of flavor which makes it more sought for by some insects 
than by others. Had the Orchids been rational beings fully aware of the laws of 
biology, chemistry and mechanic^, they could not have adapted themselves to their 
surroundings more perfectly.— (Ta^/tor.) 



236 THE SHOWY ORCHIS. 

yation has shown that the agent is a butterfly with a probos- 
cis long enough to fathom the nectary.* The mouth of the 
nectary opens just beneath the stigma, and close by the two 
sticky glands already named. The lip is the platform on which 
the insect alights. Thrusting its proboscis into the open- 
ing in order to reach the nectar, it comes into contact with 
the glands, which adhere to its head so that in retreating 
it drags the poUinia from their cells. You may do the same 
with your finger (4) and observe that in a few seconds the 
poUinium bends downward on its stalk (d). Thus it comes 
into the exact position to be dashed against the stigma below 
the cells of the next flower the insect visits. In this way, 
crossing is almost inevitably secured. 

The TTame. — Of the genus Orchis we have 'more than 
20 native species. All may be recognized by the agreement 
of the flowers to the above description. The species repre- 
sented in Fig. LXI, 0. spectdiilis (Showy Orchis), is the 
earliest in flower. Specifically it differs from the others in 
its stigma, which has the sticky glands near together and 
enclosed, while in the others they are separated and naked ; 
and the few rose-purple flowers are on a square scape not 
taller than the 2 obovate, obtuse, parallel-veined leaves, f 

Scientific Terms. — Column. Grynandrous. 



* A Madagascar Orchis has a nectary nearly a foot long. Darwin inferred from 
this fact that huge moths would be found on that island with probosces sufficiently 
long to thrust down this lengthy tube. No moth in any part of the world was known 
to possess such a proboscis. Since then Mtiller has found a species in Brazil with a 
trunk that even when dried is ten or eleven inches long, 

+ All the European Orchids and some of our own {Adam-and-E've, e. g.) have roots 
with two lobes— one hard and vigorous, the other withered and decaying. The former 
is an offshoot from the latter, and has, on its own opposite side, a bud that will the 
next year expand and send up a stem, the new plump bulb withering in its turn. In 
consequence of this mode of growth, the position of the plant changes about half an 
inch every year, and so 

'' The Orchis takes 
Its annual step across the earth," 

in time becoming quite far removed from its original position. 



ORCHIDS. 



237 



Fig. LXII.— a flower of Or- 
chis Psychddes : o, the twist- 
ed ovary ; 5, the spur. 



LXII. OTHER ORCHIDS.* 

Description. — Among the flowers of June, the practiced 
collector, acquainted with 0, speddhilis, will recognize yet 
other kinds of Orchis, or of its cousins. In old woods 
abounding in Hemlock 
and Pine, let him expect 
the Great Round-leayed 
Orchis ( 0. orbiculata) . 
It will be known by its 2 
large (5-8'), rounded, 
polished, parallel-vein ed 
leaves lying flat on the 
ground, and its tall (2 

ft.), bracted scape bearing a raceme of strag- 
gling greenish-white flowers. 

Analysis. — The student will mark the 
form of the column, so different from that of 
0. spectaUlis, Here the sticky glands are 
naked, disk-form, and widely apart, as are also 
the poUinia which they support. N"ote also the long strap- 
shaped lip, the roundish upper sepal, and the slender spur 
nearly 2' long. No insects but the largest Sphynx Moths 

* In the Orchids are seen the highest evidence of the mutual relations of flowers 
and insects. In numerous species special adaptations are carried so far that while 
self-fertilization is impossible, the service of crossing is limited to a single species of 
insect only. Thus Nature here emphasizes the principle of cross-fertilization ; and 
experience has shown that plants raised from seed produced by flowers fertilized by 
pollen from another flower, are stronger, usually taller, bear more flowers and pro- 
duce more seeds than those grown from the seed of plants fertilized by their own 
pollen, " Nature seems everyw^here to have forbidden the banns of intermarriage, 
and her decree is carried out whenever possible, from mosses to men." There have 
been cases in the histoiy of some tribes where intermarriage only could save the race 
from extinction. Similarly, among plants, there are some flow^ers which have to 
adopt self-fertilization as a rule, or as a last resort ; but the pre-eminent law is against 
it even more in plants than in animals, enforced by the very structure of the flowers. 
It is hardly too much to assert that every species of flowering plant has its peculiar 
modification to realize this end. It is as if plants themselves were conscious of the 
importance of this principle, and so adopt some device to carry it out. 




238 



OTHER ORCHIDS. 



have a proboscis long enough to fathom the depth of this 
nectary, suck its nectar and extricate its pollinia. 

^urpte- fringed Orchis, In June and July, look 
in wet grassy meadows for these handsome Orchids, known 
by their erect, tall stems, beset with lance-shaped leaves 
below, bracts aboye, and a terminal plume-like raceme of 
roseate purple-fringed flowers. The twisted ovary, long 

slender spur, the lip 3-part- 
ed and fringed, the 2 other 
petals either notched or 
fringed, are their striking 
features. Then the column, 
protruding forward and 
apart, the 2 button-shaped 
glands of the cooped pol- 
linia, present altogether an 
appearance extravagant and 
grotesque. 






2. Cypripedmm acanle ; 3, plan of the flower ; s (outer circle), 3 sepals, the 2 lower 
united, p, the petals, one of them (?) the lip, e, the stamens, o, the ovary ; 4, the col- 
umn, seen from beneath, showing the 3 stamens, 1 leaf-like, and stigma ; 5, Arethusa 
bulbdsa ; 6, the column, with lid-like anther opened by the bee. 

Fig. LXII is an enlarged view of a flower of 0. Psycliodes 
{psyche, a butterfly, eidos, appearance). With a lip more 
deeply fringed, and the two other petals, p p, also fringed. 



ORCHIDS. 239 

the cut would nearly resemble the flower of Dr. Bigelow'g 
0. grandiflora, so common in the meadows of New England. 
Again, with the lip less deeply fringed, the terminal segment 
split, the lateral segments squarely clipped, and the whole 
flower violet-purple, we should have a flower of 0, peramoenay 
a splendid plant of the meadows West and South. 

Z/ady ^ S'SUpper. Several . kinds of this interesting 
genus {Gypripedium) maybe detected in their sylvan retreats, 
and analyzed in this connection. Three distinctive marks 
will be noted. The column has 3 stamens, 2 with anthers 
and 1 petal-like, with no anther ; the lip is an inflated sack ; 
the 2 lower sepals are united to near the apex. 

Classification. — These few instances suffice to introduce 

the great and marvelous order of the Orchidace^ — the 

Orchids — containing probably 400 genera and 3000 species, 

known by the following marks : 

Herbs with parallel-veined leaves. 
Flowers irregular, 3-parted, with a lip. 
Perianth adherent to the ovary. 
Stamens 1 or 2, gynandrous. 
Pollen cohering in masses — poUinia. 
Ovary 1 -celled, with innumerable ovules. 
Fertilization effected only by insect agency. 

The Orchids grow in all countries, but are most abundant in the 
hot damp regions mthin the Tropics. There they thrive in countless 
thousands as air-plants {epiphytes) independent of the soil, clinging to 
the trunks and branches of trees, and to naked rocks, drawing their 
nourishment from the air alone, displaying curious and grotesque 
forms of floral beauty in endless variety. Their mimicry of insects, 
birds * and reptiles, is often very striking, and also significant in view of 
their dependence on insects for their very existence. Are the insects them- 
selves deceived and enticed by these animal forms and appearances ? 

The products of the Orchids useful to mankind are very few. The 

* Thus in the Holy Spirit Plant (Peristeria eldta) of Central America, the corolla 
is of alabaster whiteness, and the column within is an almost perfect likeness of a 
dove with outspread wings, as artists are wont to paint the Holy Spirit. No wonder 
that among the ignorant natives it becomes an object of superstitious reverence. 



240 



OTHER ORCHIDS. 



fragrant VaniUa used in confectionery is obtained from the dried fruit 

of Vanilla planiflora, and other species, of Mexico.* 



ORGA^. 


Xife, ^abit, A^umber, Place, i)ehiscence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, ^ize, ^alities, J-ppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


2f, terrestrial, acaulescent, 1 foot high, downy. 


Root, L K. 


Uf inaxial^ of many tufted fibers. 


Stem, L.H.K.F.. 


Crown subterranean .^ undeveloped. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


0,^, radical, parallel-veined, plaited, ovate, 5'. 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


Scape with a bract and a flower at the top. 


Flower, N.C. 


i, irregular, symmetrical, 3-parted, perfect. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Open, adherent, greenish. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Deciduous, 3, the 2 lower united, lance-oblong . 


Corolla, F.Q. 


Very irregular, the lip rose-purple. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


2 petals linear, lip saccate, obovoid, large. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


3, joined to the pistil, 1 a rhombic leaf. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


2, fertile, 2-cdled, with granular pollen. 


Style, N.C.F. 


Short, under the sterile stamen. 


Stigma, N.F. 


Terminal, obscurely 3-lobed, roughish. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


Inferior, curved, oblong, 1-celled. 


Frait, N.D.K.F.Q. 


A 3-angled, 3-valved capsule, 1-celled. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


Very numerous and minute. 


LOGMATY.—IiocTcy woods, Stamford, Conn. (Date), May, 1865. 
CLASSIPICATION.--FLOWERING ENDOGENS. 

—Order, Obchidace^, The Orchids. 
NAME— Latin, Cypripedium acaule. 

English, The Stemless Lady's-slipper. 
REMARKS.— 2%e lip is slipper-shaped, near 2' long. 



* Attempts made to grov7 this plant in the East Indies failed, since, though the 
plant blossomed abundantly, it failed to fruit, owing to the absence of the insect that 
in its native haunts is its pollen-bearer. On that account artificial fertilization was 
adopted* 



IBIS. 341 



LXIII. IRIS, OR BLUE FLAG.* 

Description. — The Blue Flag is everywhere as^sociated 
with swimming bogs^ bull-rushes, and frogs. We look for 
the large blue flowers in June. Several new features, and 
new combinations of old ones, here await the student^s 
pleasure. 

Analysis. — The base of the stem will remind him of the 
rhizome of the Bloodroot. The leaves are decidedly paral- 
lel-veined, and arranged alternately, in 2 ranks. As to form 
and position, they are ensiform {ensis, a sword) ; that is, 
linear in outline, and vertical^ or with the edges turned 
upward and downward. The vernation of the leaves, as seen 
in a cross-section of an early shoot (2), is equitant (i. e. 
riding astride). 

The Flower. Note the inflorescence, and bracts ; the 
convolute aestivation of the calyx and corolla as seen in a 
cross-section of the bud ; and the position of the floral 
organs exhibited in a vertical section (3), the latter showing 
the adhesion of the perianth to the (inferior) ovary. The 
attitude and colors of the sepals and petals are remarka- 
ble ; the former reflexed, the latter erect or even incurved 
over the central organs. The 3 stigmas would hardly be 
known were it not for their position, so much do they 
resemble petals. These are properly winged styles, only the 
tip of the upper surface being stigmatic. At the base, they 



* The Iris nas an historic interest. Several species of the flower have home the 
name flower-de-luce or fleur-de-lis, from the French Fleur-de-Louis, as during the 
Crusades that kin^ adopted it as the emhlem of his shield, and strewed it on the man- 
tle of his son at the coronation in the cathedral at Rheims {Brief History of France^ 
p. 46). After the battle of Crecy, it was united with the arms of England, but after- 
ward gave place to the Shamrock of Ireland. It is still the Lily of France. The 
ancients regarded the Iris as the emblem of eloquence or power. It was placed on 
the brow of the Sphinx, and the kings of Babylon bore it on their scepter. 
11 




Fig. LXm.— Iris versicolor : 2, section showing the vernation ; 8, vertical section 
of the flower ; 4, the flower displayed, excepting 5, the pistil and 3 stigmas. 



24a 



IRIS. 243 

unite with one another and with the perianth, and so con- 
tinue down to the triple adherent ovary. 

The fruity when mature, is a dry, oblong, obscurely 
3-cornered capsule, 3-celled and 3-YalYed. The seeds are 
numerous. A dissection shows them to contain a minute 
monocotyledonous embryo in a large albumen. 

J^ertittzation. — Half concealed beneath the arching 
stigmas we find the 3 stamens, with the anthers extrorse^ 
that is, opening and discharging their pollen outward — 
averse from the stigma. This suggests the inquiry. How 
can the pollen from the anthers ever reach the stigmas ? 
Instead of facilitating, special care seems to have been taken 
to guard against it ; the anther and stigma placed back to 
back, the former beneath and shedding its pollen downward. 
It is clear that self-fertilization is impossible. In the cavity 
at the bottom of the flower is a drop of nectar. First, the 
attention of the foraging bee is caught by the gay colors of 
the flower ; then he is drawn by the nectar. Alighting on 
a spreading sepal he brushes the anther both coming and 
going, catches on his head and back more or less of the 
pollen, which will thus be carried and scattered either on 
the stigma of the same flower, or of the flower next visited, 
where also he is again dusted. The result is an endless 
interchange of pollen, with a greater probability of cross 
than of dose fertilization. 

The Name. — Iris versicolor is the classical name — Iris, 
the fabled deity of the Rainbow ; versicolor, various-colored. 
Other species of Iris will be found in the meadows and bogs, 
and still others in the gardens. Let them be compared with 
this and their differences noted. 



244 BLUE-EYED GRASS. 

LXIV. BLUE-EYED GRASS. 

Description. — This is a frequent inhabitant of meadows, 
both lowland and upland^ so much resembling the grasses 
in its foliage that it would seldom be detected but for the 
blue flowers open in June. 

Analysis. — What kind of a root has it ? Its life ? The 
stem — has it any? And what its place^ size^ etc. ? The 
leaves — are they vertical as in Iris ? 

The I?iJloresce?ice — is it borne on a stem or a scape ? 
Eespecting its form^ the stalk is ancipital — two-edged or 
winged. The flowers issue from the midst of several bracts, 
of which the 3 outer are green, the inner scarious. The 
ovary — is it free, or adherent ? The perianth is 6-parted. 
Is there any difference between the 3 sepals and the 3 petals ? 
All are mucronate, that is, tipped with a slender point, with 
a notch. The stamens are 3, with their filaments united 
below into a tube sheathing the triple style. The fruit is a 
globular capsule with 3 cells and about 24 roundish seeds. 
The seed, black and rough-coated, shows, in a section, an 
embryo with one cotyledon in large albumen. 

The Name is Sisyrinchium Bermudidna — the former 
from the Greek, meaning a pig's snout, alluding to the form 
of the bracts ; the latter referring to the islands whence Lin- 
naeus first received it. 

The beautiful Gladiolus (a little sword) of the gardens^ 
with ensiform (sword-shaped) leaves and a spike of irregular 
flowers, may be analyzed in connection with Iris and Sisy- 
rmchium. 

The Order of the Irids — Ieidace^ — is represented by 
these plants. It includes 55 genera and 550 species, chiefly 
natives of S. Africa, Europe, and the United States. They 
coincide in the following traits : 




Fig. LXl V.— Sisynnchiuin Bermudiana : 2, vertical section of the perianth, show- 
ing the ovary (o, inferior), the 3 united stamens, etc.; 3, the ovary dissected ; 4, cross- 
section of the capsule ; 5, a seed dissected, showing the embryo ; 6, plan of the flower 
of an Iris. 

245 



246 THE TKILLIUMS. 

Herbs with equitant, 2-ranked leaves. 
Perianth adherent to the ovary. 
Segments in 2 sets, contorted in bud. 
Stamens 3, with extrorse anthers. 
Stigmas 3, opposite to the stamens. 
Capsule 3-celled, 3-valved. 
Seeds many, with hard albumen. 

The Irids are more remarkable for beautiful and fugitive flowers 
than for useful products. Besides those already noted, we find here 
the Mexican Tigridia, the Crocus, Tritonias, Watsonias, etc. 

The Aromatic Orris-Root used in all tooth-powders, with the aroma 
of Violets, is obtained from the Florentine Iris (7. Florentlna). 

Saffron, a well-known yellow dye as well as a useful medicine, is 
the dried stigmas of Crocus satwus.^ 

LXV. THE TRILLIUMS. 

Description. — These plants are peculiarly interesting 
for the symmetry of their construction^ the ternate division 
being extended in them throughout. They may be sought 
generally in shady forests^ which they enliven with their 
conspicuous bloom in the month of May, rarely earlier. 
While the genus is widely disseminated in the country, 
the species are local, no one kind being within the reach of 
all. It is therefore expedient to direct attention to the 

Gekeeic Charactees. — The Stem arises from a tuberous 
root-stock Silweij^ pr&morse, i. e., ending abruptly as if bitten 
off, in consequence of the decay of the portions grown in 
previous years. Each plant has 3 leaves and 1 flower. 

The Z/eaves are verticillate and exhibit a reticulate 
venation, as if the plant were an Exogen, which it is not. 

* Saffron is referred to in the Song of Solomon as a valuable product. In ancient 
Greece and Rome, it was a condiment highly esteemed on the tables of the rich. Our 
Saxon ancestors relished jusselle— a compound of eggs, grated bread, saffron and 
sage ; and an old English writer says, " Without saffron we cannot have well-cooked 
peas." Saffron is still used at the East as a perfume. As only the i^figma of the 
Crocus should be used, the drug is costly, and is often adulterated with the florets of 
Marigold and Safflower ( Cdrthamvs tinctbrius)^ which want the aromatic and stimu 
lating properties of the Crocus-saffron. 



TRILLIUM. 247 



ORGAN. 



Zife, Habit, iVumber, jForm,Z)ehiscence, iTind, Construc- 
tion, i^'orm, Placentation, >S'ize, Qualities, Appendages. 



Plant, L.H.S.Q., n, herb erect, 15' high, glabrous. 



Root, L.K., 2f , rhizome shorty thick, premorse. 



Stem, L.H.K.F., herbaceous, caulis erect, simple, terete. 



Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q., a whorl of 3^ terminal, broad-rhombic^ some net-veined. 



Biflorescence, P.K.A., terminal, solitary, peduncle erect ^ or nearly so. 



Flower, N.C., one, perfect.^ complete^ regular, 3-parted. 



Calyx, F.Q., wheel-shaped, green. 



Sepals, L.N.P.F., persistent, 3, spreading, lance-ovate. 



Corolla, F.Q., star-shaped, dark dull purple, ill-scented. 



Petals, L.N.P.F., deciduous, 3, spreading, lanceolate-ovate, pointed. 



Stamens, N.P.C., 6, erect., included .^ filaments short. 



Anther, D.C.F., linear, adnate, introrse, opening lengthivise. 



Style, N.C.F., 3, stigmatic along the inner side. 



Stigma, N.F., 3, long, recurved and revolute. 



Ovary, C.F.Pn,, 3-celled, 6-angled, placentas, central. 



Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q., an indehiscent, purple, ovoid berry. 



Seed, N.C.F.Q.A., several, anatropous, albuminous, black. 



'LOCMATY.— Woods, Windsor, Vt. (Date), May, 1850. 
CLASSIFICATION.— FLOWERING ENDOGENS. 

—Order, Trilliace.e, The Trilliads. 
NAME.— Latin, Trillium erectum. 

—English, Bath Flower. 
BEMARKS.— Peduncle 3^ long, flower nearly '^' broad. 



248 



THE TRILLIVMS. 



The I'lower is perfect, complete, regular and alternating. 
The calyx is free from the ovary, consisting of 3 green sepals. 
The corolla contains 3 colored petals. There are 6 stamens 




Fig. LX v.— Trillium erythrocdrpum : a, diagram, representing the floral organs 
apart, *, calyx, c, corolla, §U stamens, o, pistils ; 3, the flower of T. erectum with 
perianth removed. 

evidently in 2 circles, with anthers longer than the filaments. 
One ovary appears, superior, compounded of 3 carpels, there 
being 3 distinct, sessile stigmas. The fruit, ripe in July and 
August, is a red or purple berry, with 3 cells. There are 
several seeds in each cell, having the 1-cotyledoned embryo 
in copious albumen. 

The TTame, Trillium, given to the genus, means triple, 
all the parts of the plant being in threes. There are ten 
species, all American. T, erythrocdrpum (red-fruited), the 



MEBEOLA. 



249 



Wake Kobin, illustrated in the cuts^ inhabits cold, damp, 
often mountainous woods, from Canada to Georgia. It is 

known by its petiolate leaves, 
pedunculate flower, and white, 
purple-veined petals. 

T, erectum, the Bath-flower^ 
abounds in rich woods, especially 
Northward. The leaves are sessile, 
the flower pedunculate, and the 
petals dark-purple, ill-scented. A 
variety has white petals. The stu- 
dent will analyze the various 
species when found, and note in 
his Plant Eecord their specific 
characters.* 

The India7i Cucumbei^ (so 
called from its white, fleshy rhi- 
zome) is another herb of singular 
symmetry, frequent in the old for- 
ests of most of the States. It has 
a simple, slender stem, about 2 
feet high, bearing a whorl of 6-8 
leaves near its middle, another of 3 leaves at the to]3, 




4, &, flower of Trillium erythro- 
carpuin : 5, plan of the flower, c, 
the position of the sepals,^, of the 
petals, 5, of the stamens, o, of the 
3 united ovaries. 



* The following analytical table, condensed from the Botanist and Florist^ shows 
at a glance the distinctive features of our 8 species of Trillium : 

§ Flowers sessile. Petals dark purple, erect Nos- 1, 2- 

§ Flowers on a peduncle raised above the leaves (*) 

* Leaves petiolate, ovate, rounded at the base Nos. 3, 4. 

* Leaves sessile, rhomboidal, nearly as broad as long Nos. 5, 6. 

§ Flowers on a peduncle deflexed beneath the leaves, white — Nos. 7, 8. 

No. 1. T. sessile, L. Leaves sessile, mottled, petals sessile. 

2. T. recurvum, Beck. Leaves petiolate. Petals narrowed to a claw. 

3. T. nivdle, Riddell. Leaves obtuse. Petals obtuse, snow white. 

4. T. erythrocdrpum, Mx. Leaves acuminate. Petals pencilled with purple. 

5. T. grandiflbriim, Salisb. Petals obovate, 2^ white, becoming roseate. 

6. T. erectum, L. Petals ovate, dark-purple, or white, 1' long. 

7. T. cernuum, L. Leaves rhomboidal. Petals spreading. Stigma distinct. 

8. T.stylosum.l^Viit. Leaves elliptical. Petals recurved. Stigmas half -united. 



250 



THE TRILLIUMS. 




6, Portrait of Medeola Virginica ; 2, a flower, life size. 

together with 2 or 3 greenish flowers on recurved peduncles. 
The remarkable feature of the flower is, the very long, red- 
dish stigmas. The student will systematically analyze and 
record. 



UVULARIA. - 251 

The Name is MedMa Virginica — Medeola derived- from 
the fabled sorceress Medea ; Virginica, because the plant was 
first found in Virginia (by Gronovius). 

The Order Trilliace^, represented by these plants, 
comprehends only 4 genera, and about 30 species. Some 
authors unite this order to the Lilyworts. Their rhizomes 
are generally emetic, some of the Trilliums violently so. 



LXVI. BELLWORT, OR WILD OATS. 

Description. — Associated in memory with babbling 
brooks, mossy banks, grassy knolls, in the borders of meadow 
and forest, are the hanging Bellworts, known to our child- 
hood as Wild Oats. They come not in Flora's advance-gTiard 
with Bloodroot and Erythronium, but follow later, in May, 
when her ranks are already full. It would be desirable to 
study this plant in connection with Erythronium ; but as 
their flowers are not contemporary, a dried specimen, or the 
analysis (p. 34) must suflBce. 

Analysis (generic). — Eive or six kinds of Bellwort may 
be found, all flowering in May. Our specimens may there- 
fore be various, yet all smooth and delicate herbs 6-18^ high. 
The stem rises from a rhizome, forks into two branches 
above, both leafy, and one bearing a drooping flower on a 
peduncle, which is at first terminal, but becomes axillary by 
the further development of the branch. The leaves are 
parallel- veined, oval or oblong, and either sessile, or clasp- 
ing the stem at the base [mnplexicaul), ov perfoliate, i. e., 
with the stem passing through the blade near the base. 

The ^Perianth is between cylindric and bell-shaped, con- 
sisting of 3 sepals and 3 petals all similar in color and lance- 
spatulate in form, often twisted, having a honey groove or 



352 



THE BELLWORT. 




Fig. LXVI.— Uvularia sessilifolia : 2, section of the flower ; 3, the pistil— triple, 
3-parted above ; 4, the capsule : 5, a cross-section, showing the 3 cells ; 6, section of 
a seed, with embryo ; 7, plan of the flower,— all in 3s and alternating. 



UVULARIA. 



253 



pit at base, and deciduous. The anthers of the 6 stamens, are 
adnate, extrorse, and longer than the jSlaments. 

The Ovary, as in Erythronium, is triple, and the short 
style bears 3 long, distinct stigmas. The fruit is also a cap- 
sule, but with fewer seeds, and the valves open directly into 
the cells, that is, they are locuUcidal {locula, sl cell, cido, I 
cut). A section of the seed largely 
magnified shows an embryo with 
one cotyledon in much albumen. 

The Name, Uvuldria, was 
conferred on this genns by Lin- 
naeus for the fancied resemblance 
of the pendant flowers to the 
human palate {uvula). The com- 
mon species, portrayed in Fig. 
LXVI, is U. sessilifolia (the ses- 
sile-leaved), having the leaves 
sessile, glaucous beneath. The 
flower is of a creamy white, hardly 
1' long, with the styles nearly as 
long and half united. 

Z7. perfolidta, the perfoliate- 
leaved, is also common. The 
cream-colored flower is more than ^' "C^^^aria perfolidta. 

1' long, and the petals are covered and roughened inside 
with grains, or a mealy dust.* 

U. grandiflora, the great-flowered, has also perfoliate 
leaves, a flower ly long, not mealy inside. 




* In this species and the next, the nature of perfoliate leaves is seen. The stem 
passes through the blade {per, through, folmm, leaf) near the base. But here the 
upper leaves gradually become heart-shaped, and the terminal one is nearly sessile, 
as in TJ. sessilifolia. This shows that these leaves become perfoliate by first growing 
sessile, then enlarging backwards into base lobes, which finally unite by their inner 
edges and close around the stem, much as the peltate leaves of Tropaeolum (p. 91) or 
the upper (double) leaves of the Honeysuckle. 



354 



THE BELLWORT. 



ORGAN. 


Life, Hsibit, Numher, Place, dehiscence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, /Size, Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 1 2;, erect, forking above, 10-lk\ smooth. 


Root, L.K. n , fibers from the joints of a root-stock. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. Herbaceous, both branches leafy, onefionferous. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Cauline, alternate, perfoliate, elliptical, 2-S', thin. 1 


Inflorescence, P.K. A. ' Axillary, solitary, pedunculate, pendulous. 


Flower, N.C. 


One, perfect, complete, 3-parted, hypogynms. 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Like the corolla, pale-yellow, with honey grooves. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Deciduous, 3, little spreading, linear -oblong. 


Corolla, F.Q. 


Forming with the calyx a bell-shaped perianth. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


Deciduous, 3, linear-oblong, granulated within. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


6, hypogynous, with filaments. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Longitudinally ^-celled, linear. 


Style, N.C.F. 


One, deeply 3-cleft. 


Stigma, N.F. 


The 3 branches stigmatic along their inner surface. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


3-celled, elliptic-oblong, pn. central. 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


3-valved, loculicidal, capsule. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


Few, anatropous, obovoid ; raphe fungous. 


luOQ MATY. —Woods, Akron, 0. (Date), May, 1868. 
CLASSIFICATION.-FLOWERING ENDOGENS. 

—Order, Liliace^. The Liltworts. 
NAME —Latin, Uvula lia perfoliata. 

—English, Perfoliate Bellwort.* 



* Our five kinds of Uvularia may be distinguished as follows. (See Botanist and 
Florist, p. 347, Flora.) 
Leaves sessile. 

1. U. sessilifblia. Leaves glabrous, glaucous beneath. Style \ 3-parted. Pod 3-angled. 

2. U. puberida. Leaves puberulent, green both sides. Style 3-parted. Pod ovoid. 
Leaves perfoliate. 

3. U. fldva. Perianth V long, brig^ht yellow, smooth both sides. Leaves obtuse. 

4. U. perfoliata. Perianth 15'' long, pale-yellow, covered inside with shining grains, 

5. U. grandiflora. Perianth 18'' long, smooth, straw-yellow. Anthers obtuse. 



CONVALLARIA. 



255 



LXVII. LILY OF THE VALLEY. 

Description. — In May seek also, in the gardens, the 
Lily of the Valley, exquisite in delicacy and sweetness, and 
analyze in connection with "Dralaria. It is originally a 




Fig. LXVn.— Convallaria majalis : 2, section of a flower ; 3, the ripe berry. 

mountain plant of Europe and grows wild on the high AUe- 
ghanies of Virginia and Carolina. It is propagated by its 
rhizomes. In the cultivated state it bears no fruit, or but lit- 
tle, perhaps for want of the special insect by which its flowers 



256 LILY OF THE VALLEY. 

are fertilized in its native mountains. There its red, round, 
few-seeded berries are perfected in abundance. 

Analysis. — How much of the plant is subterranean ? On 
this large proportion depends its almost unconquerable vital- 
ity. The Lily of the Valley is strictly acaulescent. From 
each bud of the running, slender rhizome arise 2 leaves and 
several bracts involved together,* and a scape outside of them 
(herein different from Erythronium), bearing a secund or 
one-sided raceme. 

The "Periafiih is remarkably distinguished, being strictly 
gamopetalou8. Its 6 united leaves are indicated only by the 
six teeth of the border. — But we are saying more than 
behooves us. Let the student make thorough inquiry and 
record of every organ, marking especially the contrasts with 
Uvularia or Erythronium. 

The Name of this plant is Convallaria majalis ; the 
generic term being derived from the Latin word for valley, 
the usual place of growth of some of the species, f 

CHnto?zza . In the coldest woods of the Northern States 
grows the Yellow Clintonia (Fig. LXVII, 4), flowering in 
June. The dignity and elegance of its port compensate for 
its dull colors, and the collector is proud of its discovery. 

* In the portrait (Fig. LXVTE) we seem to have a stem and a peduncle (a, s). But 

the stem is only the petioles bound together by sheathing bracts. Let these be fused 
as well as bound together, and they will become a stem indeed. Thus the origin and 
nature of the stem are clearly indicated. It is formed of the united bases of all the 
leaves— even the columnar trunk, which lifts on high the organs it bears in order to 
expose them more thoroughly to the quickening influence of the sun and air. We have 
already seen, that the various appendages of the stem— the bracts and scales, the flower 
with its several organs, and the fruit, are each but modifications of the leaf ; and now 
we learn that the stem itself, even the woody trunk, is indeed a combination of leaves. 
Hence the conclusion that the leaf is the one only type of the whole plant. 

+ Our Lily of the Valley is often supposed to have been the plant alluded to by 
CHirist when he bade his disciples "Consider the lilies of the field" (Matt, vi., 28). 
Indeed the plant is called by name in Canticles ii., 1. But no Convallaria is found in 
the Holy Land. The Krinoii of the New Testament, rendered " Lily of the field," 
may have been the red Martagon Lily (Lilium Chalced6nicum), or it may have been a 
general term referring to the splendid scarlet Anemone {A. coronarius) and Ranuncu- 
lus {R, Asidticus) which overspread the fields of Palestine. 



CLINTONIA. 



257 



Analysis. — One soon learns to associate this plant with 
Convallaria, and to analyze it by a series of comparisons. 
Let the following points be spe- 
cially investigated : 

The Stem, its habit, form and kind. 

The Leaves, their clothing, venation 
and outline. 

The Inflorescence and its appendages. 

The Flower, its symmetry, cohesions, 
form of perianth. 

The Fruit, its kind, form, color, cells. 

The Seeds — number, contents. 

The ITame is Clintdnia iorea- 
lis. The genus was dedicated by 
Rafinesque to Gov. DeWitt Clin- 
ton ; borealis, is tbe Latin for 
northern. 

Classification. — The Clinto- 
nias, Conyallarias, Uvularias, Ery- 
throniums, Tulips, are some of the 
beautiful creations which consti- 
tute the order of the Lily worts — 
or LiLiACE^. The true Lilies, of 
the genus Lilium, will adorn our fields and gardens in mid^ 
summer, and add new luster to this splendid order. Lind- 
ley estimates its numbers to be — genera, 147 ; species, 1200, 
all combining the following traits : 

Leaves parallel- veined, simple. 

Flowers regular, perfect, almost always 3-parted. 

Perianth free from the cvary, its segments colored alike. 

Stamens as many as the segments of the perianth. 

Styles wholly or partly united. 

Fruit a berry or capsule. 

i albuminous, one-cotyledoned. 




4, Clintonia borealis ; 5, f 
berry cut across to show the 
2 cells. 



258 THE STAR-GRASS. 

The Lilyworts are cliieflv lierbs, and natives of t^imperate cli- 
mates. The Tropical species are generally shrubs or trees. Besides 
their pre-eminent beauty, many species are variously useful. 

The Tulips, Lilies, Day Lilies, Yuccas, Agapanthus, Star of Beth- 
lehem, and Hyacinth are well known garden flowers. 

Crown Imperial {Fritilldria imperkUis) is a native of Persia. Its 
crown consists of a tuft of terminal bracts, from the midst of which 
droop the large red or yellow flowers. The foetid bulb is said to be 
poisonous. 

Onions, Leeks, Garlics, are the bulbs of various species of Allium, 
Quamash, an important article of food with the Digger Indians of the 
far West, is the bulb of ScUla esculenta, and several species of Diche- 
lostemma. Asparagus is the young shoots of Asparagus offlcindlis. 

Aloes is the dried juice of Aloe spicdta, a shrub of S. Africa, and of 
other species of this genus. 

Squills, a valuable medicine, is the dried bulb of ScUla maritima 
of S. Europe. 

Dragon's-blood is a resin exuding from Dracena DrcwOy a large tree 
of the Canaries. One specimen has a trunk more than 20 feet in 
diameter ; but its height is inconsiderable. 

New Zealand Flax is made of the tenacious fibers of Phorinium 
tenax, a plant resembling a Yucca. The still stronger fibers of Sensi- 
mra constitute the African or Bowstring Hemp. 



LXVIII. THE STAR-GRASS. 

Description. — While the open woodlands glow with 
the purple of the Wild Geranium, and the meadows are 
touched with the rainbow tints of the Iris, the humble Star- 
grass, low down in the drier mold at your feet, unfolds its 
yellow stars and in^^tes a passing glance. 

Analysis. — In securing specimens entire, care is needed, 
for the solid bulb (the conn) lies deep and is anchored by 
strong, fibrous roots. 

The Ste?n is represented by this corm alone. 



HYPOXIS. 



359 




Pig. LXVin.— Hyp6xis erecta : 1, section of a flower ; 2, anther seen from within 
(introrse) ; 3, anther, outer side ; 4, section of the ovary ; 5, an oATile inveirted on its 
stalk (anatropous) ; 6, a capsule partly open ; 7, cross-section of the same ; 8, a seed; 
9, seed dissected ; 10, the embryo removed from its albumen. 



260 THE STAR-GEASS. 

The IjeaveSy compared with Iris, are both like and 
unlike. In venation, parallel-veined ; in vernation, equitant 
and triquetrous (3-rowed) ; in outline, linear ; in position, 
vertical. Several of the outer leaves are reduced to mere 
sheaths involving all the others at the base. In surface 
character, i. e. in quality, the leaf, and indeed the whole 
plant, is clothed with soft, scattered hairs. 

InJloresce7ice. —Several scapes shorter than the leaves 
(2-6', leaves 3-8') issue with them, and stand erect, although 
as slender as a thread (filiform), each bearing an irregular 
umbel of 2-5 flowers. The minute bracts, forming an in- 
volucre, must not escape notice. 

The jP lower is perfect, regular, having the usual 4 sets 
of organs, and closely analogous to both the Irids and the 
Lilyworts. But from these two orders the Star-grass differs 
severally by at least one important character. Here let the 
student close the book, and determine these differences for 
himself. The sepals and petals being similar form a periantli. 

The Irids have 3 stamens with extrorse anthers. How is 
this in the Star-grass ? 

The Lilyworts have the perianth free from the ovary. 
How is this in the Star-grass ? 

Compared with the Trilliads or the Orchids, the differ- 
ences become many and more obvious. What are they ? 

Are the sepals and petals quite similar in form and color ? 
Both are imbricated and persistent, withering on the ad- 
herent ripening ovary. The 6 anthers are sagittate, i. e., 
arrow-shaped. Only one style appears and one capitate 
stigma ; but the fruit is a 3-celled capsule, containing many 
roundish, black seeds. 

The Name is Hypoxis erecta — Hypoxis from two Greek 
words signifying " sharp beneath,'^ probably referring to the 
form of the ovary, or flower-bud. 



:NrARCissus. 



261 



H.fiUfolia, the thread-leaved Hypoxis, is another species, 
prevalent in the Southern States, with filiform leaves as well 
as scapes, only half a line wide. 



LXIX. NARCISSUS. 

Description. — In Spain, the Jonquils, Daffodils, Poly- 
anths and Narcissi are wild native plants. In America, they 
flourish only in gardens under 
the florist's care, prized for 
their elegance and sweetness. 
They begin to bloom a week 
or two earlier than Hypoxis, 
with which plant the student 
will do well to compare them. 
Analysis.— Narcissus agrees 
with Hypoxis in the form, 
adhesion and aestivation of 
the perianth, number of sta- 
mens, the style, capsule, and 
other parts, which will be duly 





Fig. LXIX.— Narcissus poetlcns : s, bracts forming the spathe ; 
nearly life size ; 3, a flower of N. Pseudo-Narcissus. 



2, the flower 



recorded. But it differs in its coated bulb (the stem), 
horizontal, not vertical, leaves, one-leaved, membranous 



262 THE NARCISSUS. 

spathe^ and most conspicuously in its corona — a cup-shaped 
appendage crowning the open flower. 

The Cor07ia arises from the perianth just above the 
throaty and inchides the 6 unequal stamens and the 1 style. 
In the plant before us — known as the Poet's Narcissus, in 
which the spathe is one-flowered, the corona is saucer- 
shaped, much shorter than the white perianth, sulphur- 
yellow, and edged with vermilion. 

The Name. — Narcissus, the generic name, comes from 
the Greek, narhao, meaning to become numb ; for the sup- 
posed effect of its fragrance. N. posticus is the Poet's Nar- 
cissus, or the species which Ovid intended in his fable of 
the youth Narcissus, who pined away with love for his own 
image reflected in the fountain, and at death was changed 
into a flower.* Among the numerous species are — 

N, Pseudo-Narcissus (False Narcissus), the Daffodil, 
having the large, yellow flower solitary like N poeticiis, but 
the corona is large, bell-shaped, with a notched margin. It 
is often double. In this state the petals become numerous, 
each bearing a fragment of the broken corona ; but the 3 
outer leaves — the sepals — are free. 

N. Jonquilla, the Jonquil ; very narrow leaves, 2-5 small 
yellow flowers on each scape, short corona, and very fragrant. 
The name is a diminutive of Juncus, a Eush. 

N. Tazetta, Polyanthus ; leaves linear, flowers 5-20 white 
or yellow, crown yellow. 

Classiftcation. — By Narcissus and Hypoxis the order of 
the Amaryllids — Amaetllidace^ — is introduced, number- 
ing 68 genera and 400 species, characterized as follows : 

Bulbous "herbs witb scapes and linear leaves. 
Flowers showy, perfect, not woolly nor scurfy. 

* The ancients used the Poet's Narcissus as a funeral flower, and it was conse- 
crated to the Furies who are fabled to stupefy their victims before punishing thera. 



NARCISSUS. 263 

Periantli 6-parted, imbricated, adherent. 

Stamens 6, anthers introrse. 

Ovary 3 celled, with the styles united into one. 

Fruit a berry or a capsule. 

Seeds one-cotyledoned, albuminous. 

The Amaryllids display their chief glories in S. Africa and Bra- 
zil. In other countries, they are thinly dispersed as natives, but well 
represented in gardens and conservatories. 

Here belong the fair Snowdrop {G-alcinthus\ the graceful Snowflake 
(Leucojum), the splendid Jacobaea {SpreMlia)^ Amaryllis, Pancrdtiumy 
Crlnum, etc. 

The Tuberose {Polidnthes tuberosa, i. e., tuberous-rooted), so power- 
fully aromatic, is a native of Ceylon. 

HcBmdnthus toxicdrius and other species have poisonous bulbs, used 
by the Hottentots for poisoning their arrows. The flowers of the 
Daffodil are said to be poisonous. 

The American Aloe or Century Plant {Agdve Americana) is a native 
of Mexico, well known in cultivation. It is a gigantic herb, flower- 
ing but once, after a growth of 50 to 100 years. But then its blossoms 
are numbered by thousands, panicled on a scape 30 feet in height."^ 
The juice of its immense leaves is mildly acid. By fermentation it is 
perverted into a vinous beverage resembling cider, except in its nau- 
seous smell, and is much used by the Mexicans under the name of 
''pulque." The flbers are manufactured into thread. The juice when 
dried or vaporized becomes a useful soap. A variety in cultivation 
has its leaves beautifully striped. 



LXX. THE SEDGES. GALINGALE. 

Description. — The Sedges bear a general resemblance to 
the Grasses, and are often, by the unlearned, mistaken for 
them. Both grow in similar situations, but in low, wet 
lands the Sedges usually preyail. They are generally known 
by their solid (not hollow) stems and eiitire (not split) 



* Herbs frniting after a long term of years only once and then dying, are said to 
be monocarpic perennials. Such also is the Talipot Palm of Ceylon. 



264 



THE SEDGES. 




sheaths.* Being, like the 
Grasses, almost ubiquitous, 
specimens may be culled 
in great variety, during 
Spring and Summer, in 
the meadows, fields, open 
woods, or even in the gar- 
dens. 

Analysis. — Gekeeic 
Chaeacters. — Let us be- 
gin with the Galingales— 
a genus of Sedges known 
at sight by their terminal 
umbels of flattened {2-edged) spikes. In 
these specimens, fresh or dried, the culms 
(so the peculiar, jointed stems of grass- 
like plants are called) are triangular, 
erect, leafy below, solid with pith. The 
Leaves are linear, parallel-veined, sup- 
ported on sheaths which are closed 
around the culm below, never split as 
in the Grasses. 

InJloresce7ice . The umbel is sub- 
tended by an involucre composed of sev- 
eral unequal leaves, 
and its very unequal 
rays (peduncles) are 
each sheathed at the 
base. 
The Flowers occupy the spikes, which 



Fig. LXX. — Cyp^ms 
diandrus : /, a flower; gl^ 
glume ; Ach.^ achenium. 



* The student will not mistake for Sedges those 
Rushes which have regular, 3-parted, green flowers with 
3 sepals, 3 petals, 6 stamens, 3 stigmas, and several seeds 
in the capsule, as seen much magnified in the cut. 




5, a flower of a Rush 
CLuzula). 



CAREX. 265 

are composed of imbricated bractlets called scales or glumes 
arranged alternately and in 2 rows. Each glume, except the 
lowest, conceals in its axil one minute, naked flower consist- 
ing of a 1-ovuled ovary with 3 (rarely 2) stigmas and 3 
(rarely fewer) stamens. 

The J^rutt is an achenium 2 or 3-angled, its seed with a 
minute embryo in the end of the mealy albumen. 

Specific Chaeacters. — Fig. LXX portrays a common 
Sedge, called Brown Galingale. The root is annual and 
fibrous. The culms rise 4-10', sheathed and leafy below, 
naked aboye, bearing a simple umbel with several rays and 
an involucre of 3 very unequal leaves. The spikes are clus- 
tered on the rays, oblong, obtuse, flat, about 8-flowered, and 
usually brown in color. The tiny flower beneath each glume 
except the lowest one has only 2 stamens and 2 stigmas, and 
finally an achenium 2-edged. 

The Name. — This pretty plant represents the genus 
Cyperus — a genus of immense extent, dedicated to the 
Cyprian queen, Venus, the fabled goddess of beauty.* The 
species is 0. didndrus, or the Two-stamened Cyperus, so 
named by the late Dr. Torrey,f on account of the rare spe- 
cific character thus denoted. 

Scientific Terms. — Culm. Glume. Eays. Scale. Spike. 



LXXI. THE SEDGES. CAREX. 

Description. — There is scarcely any kind of soil or 
locality where a Carex may not grow. Look for them in 
forest, field or meadow, on mountains or prairies, in lands 

* Cyperus includes not less than 350 species, of which about 40 are natives of the 
United States. 

t John Torrey, M D., processor of Chemistry at West Point and Princeton, and 
of Botany in Columbia College, died 1873, 8et.77; among American botanists pre-emi- 
nent, beloved and revered as an instructor, friend and Christian. 
■•0 



966 



THE SEDGES. 



shady or arid, loamy or rocky, 
in sands or peat-bogs — any- 
where, and the search need 
not be long. They are read- 
ily known from other Sedges 
by having their flowers all 
imperfect, either ? or 5 , and 
the achenium inclosed in a 
bottle-shaped sack. 

Analysis • — !. Generic 
OHA.RACTERS. — Having in . 
hand a Carex, or any num- 
ber of them, fresh or dried, 
their features may be traced 
as follows : A triangular 
culm, or a cluster of culms, 
beset with grass-like leaves, 
bears one or several, often 
many, greenish spikes. The 
spikes are terete^ composed of 
glumes (or scales) spirally 
imbricated, and bearing in 
the axil of each glume (ex- 
cept the lower) a single 
flower. 

The JF^lowers are all im- 
perfect, either staminate ( 3 ) 
or pistillate (?), and vari- 
ously disposed. In some 
species, the 3 and 2 together 
occupy the same spike or 
spikes {androgynous) ; in 
other species they occupy separate spikes on the same plant 




Fig. LXXI.— Carex bullto : 2, a ster- 
ile flower ; 3, a fertile flower dissected, 
showing the glume, ovary and stigmas ; 
4, section showing the solid culm and 
equitant vernation. 



CAREX. 



267 



(moncecious) ; and in a few others, separate spikes on sepa- 
rate plants {dicecioics). The $ flowers consist of 3 stamens, 
with anthers attached to the filament by the base, i. e,, innate. 

The $ is an ovary invested with 
a sack {perigynium) composed of 
3 united glumes. The 2 or three 
stigmas project from the beak or 
orifice of the perigynium which 
finally incloses the achenium. 

2. Specific Characters. — 
Among the multitudinous forms 
of Oarex, we select the two shown 
in the cuts, common in our wet 
meadows. The Jewelled Carex 
(Fig. LXXI, 1), may be distin- 
guished thus : A 
smooth, light- 
green Carex, 2 
feet high, with 
narrow leaves and 
bracts, monoe- 
cious, with the 
sterile ( 3 ) spikes 
2 or 3, and the fer- 
tile (?) 1 or 2, 
oval or oblong, on 
very short pedun- 
cles ; the perigy- 
nia turgid-ovoid, 
reclining, taper- 
ing into a long, 
straight, rough beak, much longer than the lanceolate 
glume ; stigmas 3, achenium 3-cornered. 





5. Carex flava ; 6, a glnme ; 7, a flower (perigynium) 
v\ith 3 stigmas issuing from the orifice ; 8, ? flower of Carex 
rivul^ris ; g, tlie giume, p^ the bottle-shaped perigynium 
8-toothed at top, enveloping the ovary ; stigmas 3 ; 9, a 
perfect flower of Scirpus lacustris,with 6 setae, 3 stamens, 
8 stigmas. 



268 THE SEDGES. 

The Yellow Oarex is thus distinguished : 

Inflorescence monoecious, $ spike single, $ spikes 2. 

Stigmas 3, and tlae achenium therefore 3-cornered. 

Peduncles ( $ ) scarcely exserted from the sheaths. 

Perigynia smooth, crowded, inflated, longer than the glume, ovoid, 
tapering into a slender recurved beak. 

The whole plant is yellowish-green, 10-20' high. The $ spike is ter- 
minal, cylindric, 10-12^' long, the ? spikes roundish to oval, 4-7'' long. 

The Name, Carex, is the old Latin name for these 
plants,* from careo, I want ; as the upper flowers are con- 
stantly without seed. O. hullata, the Jewelled Oarex, is 
named for its stud-like perigynia ; 0. flava, the Yellow 
Carex, alluding to the yellowish herbage. Carex is the 
largest genus in the Flora of North America. \ 

Classification. — These examples must suffice to repre- 
sent the great order of the Sedges— the Cypekace^, known 
by the following traits : 

Culms solid with pith. 

Leaves linear, channelled, with closed sheaths. 

Flowers spicate, one in the axil of each glume. 

Perianth none, or a few setce, or a perigynium. 

Anthers generally 3, fixed by the base {innate). 

Pistil 1-ovuled, with 2 or 3 stigmas. 

Fruit an achenium 2-edged or 3-cornered. 

The Order of the Sedges includes 120 genera, and 2000 species. 
They inhabit all climes and countries, but chiefly the meadows, marshes 
and swamps of the temperate zones. They are of slight use as food, 
or in the arts. They differ from the grasses in having little sugar or 
starch, and so form a poor pasture. 

The Nut-grass of the S. States, the pest of .the Cotton-fields, is Cyperus 
Hydra, It multiplies by creeping roots and tubers in spite of hoe and 
plough. The tubers of G. esculentus, cultivated by the ancient Egyp- 
tians, may be boiled for food, or roasted for Coffee. The roots of G. 

* See Yirg, Eel., Ill, 20. " Tu post carecta latebras." You hid behind the Sedges. 
The English term Sedge comes from the Saxon scecg^ a sword. 

t About 500 species have been described, of which 200 are natives of the United 
States. 



CAREX. 



269 



rotiindus contain an aromatic oil ; those of C, longus are tonic and 
astringent. 

The Mat-grasses, growing on sandy shores and dikes, securing them 
against the incursions of the sea or the drifting winds, include some 
species of Carex, as G. arendria, C. fcmea^G. ripdria, etc. The roots 
of C. arendria are used as a substitute for Sarsaparilla. 



ORGAN. 


Zif e, ^abit, iVumber, Place, Z^ehiscence, ^ind, (7onstruc- 
tion, i^orm, /Size, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


2f , grass-tike, WSO' high, light-green. 


Root, L.Q. 


n, numerous fibers from creeping rhizomes. 


Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 


Herbaceous, erect, triang., solid, sm^oothish. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 


Alternate, equitant at base, linear. 


Sheaths, C.S.Q. 


Clasping the culm with joined edges, smooth. 


Inflorescence,P.K.F.A. 


Spikes terminal, and in the upper axils, mostly on pedun- 
cles, with bracts, and terete. 


Involucre, N.K.S. 


None. 


Spikes, N.K.F.S.Q. 


6,Sor3, terete, acute, 1^ and less ; ^ ,1 or 2 below the i , 
oval or oblong,, short-pedunculate. 


Flowers, N.K.C. 


Many, ? and $> , the sterile naked {no perianth). 


Glumes, N.P.F. 


One subtending each flower, ovate. 


Perianth, N.P.K.S.Q. 


Perigynium turgid, abruptly long-beaked. 


Anthers, N.C.D. 


S, innate, linear, ^-celled longitudinally. 


Stigmas, N.F. 


3, issuing from the 2-toothed orifice. 


Grain, K.F.A. 


Achenium triangular-obovoid. 


Seed, N.K.C. 


One. 


IjOCKIITY. —River banks, Fordham, 2V. Y. (Date), June, 1878, 
CLASSIFICATION.-GLUMACEOUS EXOGENS. 

—Order, Cyperace^, The Sedges, 
NAME.-Latin, Carex IbiiUata. 

—English, The Jeivdled Carex. 
'KEM.ARKS.—The perigynium is twice longer than the glume. 



270 



THE SEDGES. 



Bulrushes, used in making matting, cliair-bottoms and baskets, are 
tlie culms of Scirpus lacustris and other kinds. 

The Tule, or Giant Rush, growing in inundated places, is Scirpus 
mlidus. In the valley of the Sacramento, Cal., it rises 12 feet high, 
covering thousands of acres. 

The Cotton Grass {Eriophorum) is conspicuous in our wet northern 
meadows for its airy cotton-like tufts waving iu the wind. These tufts 





6, Cyperus Papyrus. A 
scene in ancient Thebes, on 
the River Nile. 



are composed of the 

long hairs, called setce, 

growing in each of 

the crowded flowers, in 
the place of a perianth. Five species are described in our floras 
{Botanist and Florist, p. 362), of which E, Yirginicum, with reddish 
cotton, displays the largest tufts. 

The Rush or Bulrush of the Nile (Hebrew, Gome, Exodus li., 3) is 
Papyrus antiquorum (Willd.), or as now called, Cyperus Fap^rus (Linn.). 



POA. 271 

It is a gigantic Sedge, 10-15 feet high, surmounted by a compound 
umbel of numerous rays and bracts. Its spreading rhizomes have 
helped to consolidate the mud of the Delta. Its tall, stout culms were 
used in making boats, baskets, ropes, and fuel, as the name implies 
(Gr. pao, to feed, py7\ fire). The earliest and rudest paper (hence the 
name) was manufactured from its pith — the cellular tissue which fills 
its culms.* Its graceful form affords a favorite theme for artists. 

Scientific Terms.-- Androgynous. Beak. Equitant. Glumes. 
Innate anther. Monoecious. Orifice. Perigynium. Spikes. 

LXXII. THE GRASSES. 

Description. — These modest and useful plants are eyery- 
where at hand, mantling the hills, meadows, and val- 
leys with their soft, imiform green, beginning to open 
their colorless flowers early in June or sooner. A variety of 
such specimens is before us to-day, unpromising indeed. 
But we cannot fail to find the examination full of profit 
and agreeable surprise. Our cuts represent three common 
Grasses, with flowers simultaneous, and quite dissimilar. 

Analysis (generic). — The ^ool of all these is inaxial 
(no tap root), consisting of many strong fibers taking a firm 
hold of the soil and helping to bind it into a matted turf. 

The Stem is somewhat enlarged or bulbous at the base, 
terete above, conspicuously jointed at intervals, hollow orfis- 
iular between the joints. Stems of this kind are called culms. 

The Z/Saves are alternate, parallel-veined, constructed 
in 3 parts. The lower part, from the joint upward, is the 
sheath^ answering to petiole, enfolding the stem with edges 
overlapping beyond — not united. The blade is strictly 
linear. At the junction of the sheath and the blade is a 
^hort membrane called Iigule, answering to stipules. 

* The mode of preparing this paper was very simple. The stem was peeled and 
the pith cut lengthwise into thin slices. These were then laid side by side with their 
edges touching, and sprinkled with the muddy water of the Nile. Another row of 
pith-slices was then laid transversely upon the first, and by pressui'e the whole mass 
united into a compact sheet 



272 



THE GRASSES. 



The I7ijl07^escence is yariously developed in these speci- 
mens. Generally it appears as in Spear Grass (Fig. LXXII), 
a brandling pyramidal bouquet — a panicle, differing from a 

raceme inasmuch as the 
branches are branched 
again. It is well to ob- 
serve ivhether the branches 
are grouped in 5s, 2s, or 
Is. In other specimens the 
inflorescence is contracted 
into a spike or a spike-like 
panicle. The flowers are 
collected into little clusters 
called spiTcelets. Let us 
here take up a spikelet of 
Spear-grass (Fig. LXXII,!), 
which we may study as a 
type of all. It is scarcely 2" 
in length, ovate-lanceolate 





Fig. LXXII.— Poa pratensis (a depanperate specimen, for the "braiiches are usually 
in 5s) : 1, a spikelet with 2 glumes and 4 flowers ; 2, a single flower ; 3, ovary and 
feathery stigmas ; 4, ripe kernel enclosed in the 2 pales ; 5, Poa debilis ; g, spikelet, 
3-flowered ; /, a flower ; 6, a spikelet of Phleum pratense : a, the 2 awned glumes ; 
^>, the 2 pales and ovary. 

in outline. At the base are 2 chaffy bractlets — the glumes 
(g). Within and above the glumes are 4 flowers (more or 
less), alternate, imbricated when closed. Such is a spikelet. 



POA. 



'ZT6 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ZTabit, xYumber, Place, /find, Construction, jp'orm, 
Size, i)ehiscence, ^alities, J.ppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


2f , grass-like, 2-3 feet, dark green. 


Root, L.K. 


U, many branchiiig fibers. 


Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 


Herbaceous, erect, simple, terete, hollow, smooth. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 


Alternate, flat, broad-linear, rough-edged. 


Sheath, C.S.Q. 


Loose, with edges free, smooth, striate. 


Ligule, F.S.Q. 


Very short or obsolete. 


Tti fl orescence, P.K. FA. 


Panicle somewhat secund, slender, 9\ the branches short. 


Spikelet, N.K.F.S.Q. 


Fewer, lanceolate, terete, acute, l''-8". 


Flowers, N.K. 


6-9, perfect. 


Glumes, N.P.F.S.Q, 


2, upper one larger, S-velned, scarims on the margin. 


Pales, N.P.K.Q 


2, the lower one 5-veined, acute. 


Awns, P.F.S.Q. 


None. 


Rudiments, K.F.Q,. 


None, 


Anthers, N.P.C.D. 


3, exserted, ^-celled, ^versatile, longitudinal. 


Stigmas, N.C.F. 


2, plumous, shorter than pales. 


Grain, K.F. 


Caryopsis, oblong. 


Seed, N.K.C. 


One, 


'LOC^^:\TY, —Meadows, Chester, Penn. (Date), June, 1876. 
CLASSIFICATION.— GLUMACEOUS ENDOGENS. 

—Order, Gkamine^, The Grasses. 
NAME.— Latin, Festiica prateiisis. 

—English, Meadow Fescue. 
REMARKS.— SpiMets somewhat racemed in the branches. 



The Flowe7\ A common lens will be helpful in view- 
ing the blossom. Take it while it is open, or in bloom, as 
many are every dewy morning. First, 2 chaffy bractlets. 



274 THE ORCHARD GRASS. 

the pales^ are seen expanded, one a little above the other, as 
in the glumes ; next, 3 stamens with gossamer filaments 
and versatile anthers ; lastly, an ovary with 2 feathery 
stigmas. In a few days the ovary is matured into a caryop- 
sis — a one-seeded fruit like a grain of wheat, whose shell or 
pericarp is inseparable from the seed. 

J^e7'tiUzation. — There are no bright colors in these 
flowers to catch the eye of the insect tribes, nor honey to 
attract them. Insect aid in fertilization does not here seem 
necessary. The pollen is conveyed by the wind. To this 
end, the Grasses grow together in dense crowds and the 
pollen is superabundant, probably a thousandfold, filling 
the breeze so that the plume of every stigma is sure to catch 
at least one grain either from its own or other anthers. 

The Name, Poa praUnsis—Vo^, Gr. for hay or fodder ; 
pratensis, of the meadow. This plant is generally known as 
June Grass, as its grains are often ripe in June. We have 
other species of Poa, flowering a month later, among which 
is the Blue Grass (P. compressa), also the beautiful red- 
tinted Fowl-Meadow (P. serotina), P. annua is the low, 
soft Lawn-grass, flowering in April.* 

Scientific Terms. — Caryopsis. Culm. Glumes. Inaxial root. 
Ligule. Pales. Panicle. Sheatli. Spikelets. 

LXXIII. THE ORCHARD GRASS. 

Description. — This is a conspicuous and very common 
herb in orchards and groves. It is tall and stout compared 
with Spear-grass ; in color, glaucus or seagreen. 

* The Annual Meadow Grass (P. annua) and Shepherd's Purse are, perhaps, the 
most common plants in the world. On almost every waste spot where even a weed 
can grow— on the bank by the roadside, along the garden path, between the stones of 
the city pavement, high up in the mountain as well as in the rich meadow at its foot 
—these modest plants display their cheerful verdure. 



DACTYLIS. 



275 



Analysis. — The student will analyze throughout as we 
have done in Spear-grass, making special note of the points 
of difference in the two plants, such as the following. 

The Orchard-grass 
is rough to the touch 
— scabrous. The 
leaves and even the 
sheaths are decided- 
ly keeled {carinate, 
or boat-shaped). 

The ligule is ex- 
cessively large, and 
split or bifid. 

The branches of 
the panicle are sin- 
gle. 

The spikelets are 
collected in dense, 
one-sided {secund) 
clusters. While 
closed they are lance- 
olate, 3-3" long, 
about 4 - flowered, 
with the flowers a 
little separated on 
the rachis. The 2 
glumes and the lower 
pale are rough-a7m?f^ 
(with a row of short 
hairs) on the keels, 
and narrowed to 
an awn-like point. There are 3 stamens, 2 feathery stigmas, 
and a lanceolate grain free from the pales. 




Fig. LXXIII.— Dactylis glomerata : 1, a spikelet 
with 2 glumes, 4 flowers and 1 rudiment ; 2, a flower. 



276 



SWEET VEKKAL GKASS. 



The Name. — Dddylis glomerata {Dadylis, fingers, glo-^ 
merata, crowded), is the significant title. 

Scientific Terms. — Carinate. Ciliate. Secund. Scabrous. 



LXXIV. SWEET VERNAL GRASS. 




Fig. LXXIV.— Anthoxanthum 
odoratum. 



The Sweet Vernal 
Grass begins to flower a 
few days earlier than 
Spear-grass, in the same 
situations. The analy- 
sis of its root, culm, 
leaves and inflorescence 
may be conducted as in 
that plant, searching for 
differences as well as 
analogies. 

Analysis. -The leaf- 
blade and sheath are 
very short, while the 
internode is very long. 
The ligule is conspicu- 
ous. The panicle is con- 
tracted to the form of a loose spike 
or raceme. 

The Spikelet is 3-4'' long. It 
consists, 1st, of 2 glumes, the lower 
twice longer than the upper ; 2d, 
of ciliated pales supposed to be 2 
rudimentary flowers, each bearing 
an awn on its back ; 3d, one per- 
fect flower situated between the 3 
rudiments, that is, terminal. 



ANTHOXANTHUM. 



277 



The F'lower is diandrous, composed of 2 small, smooth 
pales, 2 long stamens with versatile double anthers, and an 
oyary with 2 styles bearing plumous stigmas as long as the 
stamens.* Finally the grain or caryopsis resembles a wheat 
kernel, but many times smaller. 

The Name.— To this fine Grass, which is widely dis- 
persed oyer Europe as well as America, 
Linnseus gave the name of Anthoxdn- 
thum odordtum, meaning either 
^^Sweet-smelling yellow flowers" or 
^^Sweet-smelling flower of flowers." 
But its flowers are not sweet-smelling, 
yet its herbage when cut imparts to 
the drying hay much of its delicious 
fragrance. 

Thus we have analyzed three genera 
of Grasses. In addition, let the stu- 
dent study the Eed-top, whose spike- 
lets are simply 1-flowered; Wheat, 
Oats, and Corn. In the latter the 
flowers of the tassel are all staminate ; 
of the ear all pistillate. 

Gernii7iaHon . In the Exogens, as we have often seen, 
the embryo of the seed has two lobes or cotyledons, or as 
botanists say, is dicotyledonous. In the Endogens, the em- 
bryo is more simple, being generally an oblong body (Fig. 
LXXVIII, 10), of which one end is a radicle and the other a 
plumule wrapped up in a single cotyledon, only its end being 
visible. The nourishment is partly in the cotyledon and 
mostly the mealy albumen on one side of it. In germina- 




2, Agr6stis vulgaris, a, 1- 
flowered spikelet ; 6, the 
flower removed from its 
glumes ; 3, Agr6stis scabra ; 
c, the 2 glumes separated 
from (6?) the single flower. 



* We cannot fail to observe the special adaptation of these flowers to wind-f ertili^ 
zation. Their long exserted stamens and stigmas are lifted to the breeze like waving 
banners. The anthers opening their whole length, swing nicely balanced and tremu- 
lous, while the stigmas wave their plumes to catch the flying pollen grains. 



278 



SWEET VERXAL GRASS. 



tion the cotyledon never arises above the ground but remains 
with the seed. 

Let a few kernels of corn be placed on a lock of cotton in 
a glass of water. After a day or two the albumen has soft- 
ened, swelled, and become sweetish. In 3 days the radicle 

(r) has pushed out and 
turned downward, while 
the cotyledon has extend- 
ed itself backward a little, 
and freed the end of the 
plumule, but still holding 
fast above to the albumen 
whence yet comes its nour- 
ishment. Another day, the 
plumule pushes out from 
the cotyledon, and begins 
to ascend as the first leaf, 
while the radicle grows 
and develops some side 
rootlets. Another day we 
see a second leaf push out 
from the first, both still 
rolled up (convolute), and 
so on, one after another, 
in the order of a spiral. 
Classification. — The order of the Grasses — Grami:n-e^ 
— includes 300 genera and nearly 4000 species, and limited 
as follows : 

Plants endogenous, with fibrous roots. 

Culms hollow between the solid joints. 

Leaves alternate, on open or split sheaths, with a ligule. 

Flowers in spikelets with alternate glumes and pales. 

Stamens 3 (rarely 1-6), exserted, versatile. 

Ovary with 2 plumous stigmas and one ovule. 

Fruit a caryopsis, with flowery albumen. 




4, Germination of Maize (or Indian Corn) : 
0, the kernel or albumen ; r, the radicle ; ^, 
plumule. 



ANTHOXAKTHUM. 



279 



The Order of the Grasses prevails wherever there 
is a soil, in all countries and climes, varying in species and 
habit with the climate. In cool, temperate regions, they are 
dwarfed and crowded, forming a soft carpet of turf. In 




6, creeping rhizome of Witch Grass {Trificum repens). 

warm or torrid regions they form no turf, but grow apart, 
enlarged, even arising into trees like the stately Bamboo. 

The order is no less valuable to man than vast in extent. 
It furnishes sweet herbage as fodder for animals, and farina- 
ceous grains as food for man. ]Si"o poisonous herb is found 
among them except perhaps the Darnel.* 

The Common Oat, Avena sativa, is said to be a native of the Island 
of Juan Fernandez. Its grain is riclily nutritious both for man and 
beast. The grain is firmly inclosed in its husk^the pales — from which 
it is first separated in the manufacture of oat-meal. The Wild Oat, 
or Animated Oat, is Avena fdtua. Its long hygrometric awn is put in 
motion by slight changes in the moisture of the air. 

Barley is the grain of Hordeum distichum and H. vulgdre, the former 
the Two-rowed, the latter the Four-rowed. Native country unknown. 

Rye {Secdle ceredle) is next to Wheat in value for bread-making. It 
is chiefly cultivated in Russia and Germany. 

* Said to be a narcotic poison ; but this has not been fully proved. It is the same 
plant {Lolium ternulentum) alluded to in St. Matthew as Tares. Some Grasses with 
creeping subterranean stems, as Quick Grass {Triticum repens) are troublesome weeds. 
Others of similar habit, as Elymus arenariiis, Psamma arenaria, bind the loose sand 
of the sea-shore together, preventing incursions of the sea. Numerous floating islands 
in the River Amazon are formed chiefly of Grasses. They are called Llhas de Capim. 
Some of these islands are acres in extent, and from 5 to 8 feet of their thickness is 
under water. (See Earpefs Magazine, February, 1879.) 



280 SWEET VERISTAL GRASS. 

Wheat {Triticum sativum), as the food of cMlized man, is the most 
valuable of all grains. It has been so long and so extensiyely culti- 
vated that it has sported into innumerable varieties, and its nativity is 
unknown. 

Rice (Oryza sativa) is said to be the food of a majority of the 
human race, being the staple diet of China and the East Indies. It 
is largely cultivated in S. Carolina, Georgia and Florida, in lands 
inundated for this purpose. 

Indian Rice, or Wild Rice, is the grain of Zizdnia aqudtica of river 
marshes in Canada and the northern United States. 

Indian Corn {Zea mays) is a native of America, unknown to Euro- 
peans until the discovery of the New World. The vast extent to which 
it is now cultivated indicates its value. Among its many varieties are 
Sweet Corn, Pop Corn, and Rice Corn. 

Sugar Cane {SaccJidrum officindrum) is an important member of this 
Order, cultivated in warm climates. It is the source of nearly all the 
sugar consumed by civilized nations. The juice is expressed from the 
stalks and evaporated until crystallized. 

Various species of Sorghum have been cultivated for sugar with 
poor success. 

Broom Corn is Sorghum saccliardtum, a native of Arabia. Its use in 
broom making is well understood. 

Pampas Grass {Gynerium argenteum) is native of S. America, culti- 
vated for its splendid plume-like panicles of silvery whiteness. 

Bamboo {Bambusa arundindcea), growing in all tropical lands, 
attains a height of 50 to 80 feet, with a culm 10 inches thick— trees of 
exceeding beauty and grace. Bamboos are variously useful for "fish- 
ing-rods, water-pipes, trellis -work, scaffolding, sails, umbrellas, hats, 
shields, baskets, ropes, paper." 

Hay is the dried herbage of many grasses cut when in or just past 
flowering. Some of the best for this purpose are the following : Tim- 
othy {Phleum pratense) ; Redtop (Agrdstis vulgaris) ; Bluejoint {Cala- 
magrostis Canadensis) ; Orchard Grass {Ddctylis glomerdta) ; Spear or 
June Grass {Poa pratensis) ; Fowl Meadow {Poa serotina) ; Fescue 
(Festiica pratensis) ; Blue Grass {Poa compressa), Chess (Bromus secdle) ; 
Salt Meadow Grass {Bryzopyrum spicdtum). 

Scientific Terms.— Awns. Rudimentarv. Versatile anthers. 



KASTURTION. 



281 




Fig. XXm.— Tropaeolum major ; the leaves peltate, 
the flowers spurred : 2, a ripe fruit, of 3 separable, one- 
seeded nutlets ; 3, plan of the flower ; sepals and petals 
imbricated ; stamens 8, carpels 3 ; 6, the spurred sepal 
See p. 95. 



283 



CICUTA. 




Fig. XXXIV— 10, Cicuta maculata (Water Hemlock) : 11, a flower enlarged ; 12, 
a cremocarp ; 13, cross-section of the same, showing the place of the 8 oil-tubes 
Cvlttae). See p. 13T. 



OlnfTTA. 



283 



ORGAN. 


Life, JSabit, iViimber, Place, i?ehiscence. Kind, Construc- 
tion, ii^orm, Placentation, >S'ize, ^lalities, J.ppendages, 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


21, herb erect, bi^anching, 6 feet high, glabrous. 


Root, L.K. 


2f , of fibers, some of them thick, fleshy, oblong. 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 


Herbaceous, terete, hollow, striate or spotted with brown. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Cauline, comp., on sheathing petioles ; leaflets lanceolate.* 


Inflorescence, P.K.A. 


In terminal, compound umbels, involucre few-leaved, ' 


Flower, N.C. 


Numerous, complete, perfect, regular, 5-parted, 


Calyx, F.Q. 


Tube adherent to ovary, green, minute. 


Sepals, L.N.P.F. 


Minute teeth 5, epigynous, valvate in bud. 


CoroUa, F.Q. 


Rotate, white. 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 


5, deciduous, epigynous, inflected at thepoird. 


Stamens, N.P.C. 


5, epigynous, diverging, complete. 


Anther, D.C.F. 


Opening lengthwise, introrse, oval. 


Style, N.C.F. 


2, short, distinct, slender. 


Stigma, N.F. 


2, club-shaped. 


Ovary, C.F.Pn. 


2-ca?^pelled, 2-ovided. 


Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 


A cremocarp, oval ; carpels with 5 ribs and h vittce. 


Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


1 in each carpel, suspended, albuminous. 


LOCALITY.- Swamps, Worcester, JMss. (Date), July, 1870. 

CLASSIFICATION.-POLYPETALOrS EXOGENS. 

— Umbelliter^, the XJmbelworts. 

NAME.— Latin, Cicuta maculata. 

—English, Spotted Water-hemlock, 

REMARKS.— 7%€ minlets terminate in the notches between the teeth. The 
herbage is said to be jMsonous. 



284 



ANTEKNARIA. 



The Record. — This plant, and the Order which it repre- 
sents, offers so many peculiarities of inflorescence that a new 
tablet becomes necessary, (See Plant Record, Asterwort.) 



ORGAN. 


Zife,5abit, iVumber, Place, JTind, Construction, i^orm, 
/Size, Qualities of color, etc., Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 


2(, herby in dry pastures^ 5—9\ woolly -canescent. 


Stem, L.H.E:.F. 


Herbaceous y erect ^ simple, with runners at base of caulis. 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 


Decid., alternate, entire, cbovate, oxal-spatulate, and linear- 
oblong, pinni-veined, petiolate, exstipidate. 


Petiole, F.S.Q. 


Margined, ^'—V—o^ upper leaves sessile. 


Inflorescence, P.K. 


Terminaly in heads ; heads clustered. 


Head, K.F.S. 


Dioecious, discoid, 3" diameter. 


Involucre, K.F. 


Imbricated, oval or hemispherical. 


Scales, KP.F.Q. 


00 > appressed, o^Me, scarims, white, 5 obtuse, $ acute. 


Receptacle, F.Q. 


Flattish^ naked. 


Pales, N.P.F.Q. 


None. 


Ray flowers, N.K.F.Q. 


None, 


Disk flowers, N.K.F.Q. 


y^f 6 and ? on different plants, tubular, 5-toothed, white. 


Pappus, L.N.C.F.Q. 


Persistent^ 20, simple^ capillary, white. 


Stigmas, N.P.C.F.Q. 


^, exserted, recurved, 5 united, yellow. 


Achenium, F.Q. 


Linear, teretish, brown. 


Embryo, P.F. 


Axial, straight. 


LOCALITY.— Dayton, 0, (Date), AprU 12. 
CLASSIFICATION.-GAMOPETALOUSEXOGENS. 

—Order, Composite, or The Asterworts. 
NAME.— Latin, Antennaria plant agiiiifolia. 

—English, Mouse-ear Everlasting. 
REMARKS.— r^e pappus of the sterile florets consists of club-shaped knobby 
bristles poorly adapted to flying. 



MAPLE. 



285 




Pig. LI.— Flowers, leaf, and double samara of Acer sacchaiinimi (Sugar Maple) ; 
1, leaf and samarae of Acer rubmin (Red Maple). See p. 188. 



286 



OAK LEAVES. 




Fig. LVI.— Quercus : 1, leaf of Q. virens, Live Oak ; 2, Q. Phellos, Willow Oak; 
3, Q imbrlcaria, Shingle Oak ; 4, Q. aquatica. Water Oak ; 5, Q. nigra, Black Jack ; 
6, Q. triloba, Downy- Black Jack ; 7, Q. ilicifolia, Bear Oak ; 8, Q. rubra. Red Oak ; 
9, Q. palustris, Pin Oak ; 10, Q. coccinia, Scarlet Oak ; 11, Q. falcata, Spanish Oak ; 12, 
Q. alba, White Oak ; 13, Q. obtusiloba. Iron Oak ; 14, Q. macrocarpa, Mossy-cup Oak ; 
15, Q. bicolor, Swamp-White Oak ; 16, Q. Prinos, Swamp-Chestnut Oak. 



QUESTIONS. 



L ADAPTED TO THE FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 

1. Distinguish two regions. 

2. What parts are distinguishable in each region ? 
2. What is the form of the Root ? 

4. What purposes does it serve? 

5. In which region is the Stem? 

6. Describe its form, attitude, height or length. 

7. Its habit as to branches. — Its kind as to scales or leaves 

8. Where are the Leaves placed ? How arranged ? 
Q. Shall we call them fronds ? Why, or why not ? 

10. Are they simple, or compound ? 

11. What are their members? Have they veins? 

12. Name their three kinds of veins. 

13. What is the kind and mode of venation ? 

14. Define carefully the form of outline. 

15. What is their quality of surface, or clothing? 

16. What do you call their stalks, if any ? 

17. Where is the fruit produced? 

18. What supports it? Describe the pedicel, if any. 

19. Tell how the capsules open. 

20. Point out the operculum, or the elastic ring. 

21. Describe the peristome, if any. 

22. What do the capsules contain? 

23. What becomes of the spores? What is their use? 

24. What if no more spores were produced ? 

25. Do you find any flowers? Of what size and appearance F 

26. In what subkingdom is this plant classed? 



288 APPENDIX. 

27. In what sense is this a " Flowerless Plant " ? 

28. What is its order? — genus? — species?"^ 

29. What is its popular name ? 

II. ON THE LEAF REGION OF A FLOWERING PLANT 

§ 1. The Plant. 
Life. Is it an annual, a biennial, or a perennial? 
Habit. Is it an herb, a shrub, vine, or tree ? 

Describe its locality. 
Size, What are its height, or length, and other dimensions? 
Qualities, In surface, is it smooth, or rough, or hairy? 

What term defines its color or special hue? 

§ 2. The Root. 
Life State its term of duration. 
Form. Is it axial, or inaxial '> Of what special form? 

§ 3. The Stem. 

Life. What is its duration and substance? 

Habit, In growth, is it exogenous, or endogenous ? 

What is its direction or posture ? 

What is its habit of branching ? 
Kind. Is it scaly or leafy ? — under or above ground ? 

Is it a caulis, trunk, bulb, or rhizome, etc. ? 
Form, Is it solid, or tubular, angular, or terete, etc. ? 

§ 4. The Leaves. 
Life, Are the leaves deciduous, or evergreen ? 
Place, How are they folded in vernation? 

What is their position on the plant? 

How are they arranged among themselves? 
Construction. Describe their veins and venation. 

Of what numbers are they constituted ? 

Are they simple, or compound ? 

Desoribe the mode of composition. 
Form of blade. What term or terms define their outline ? 



* The scientific name of a plant, or its genus and species, if not communicated, may 
be determined, after analysis, by the aid of a Descriptive Flora with analytical tables. 



QUESTIONS. 289 

What term defines the ape^ ? — or base ? 

The margin — is it dentate ? — serrate ? — entire ? — etc. 
Size, State their measurements. 
Quality, Describe their surface-quality, or clothing. 

§ 5. The Petiole. 
Form^ etc. State the form, size, and quality of the petiole. 

§ 6. The Stipules. 
Life, etc. State their duration, kind, and form. 

III. ON THE FLOWER REGION OF ANY FLOWERING PLANT 
(except the composites, sedges and grasses). 

§ 1. Inflorescence. 

Place. Define the position and posture of the flowers. 

Kijtd. In general, is the inflorescence solitary, or centripetal ? etc. 

In particular, is it a raceme ? — spike ? — spadix ? 
Appendages. Name the flower-stalks, if any. 

Describe the bracts, il any. 

The involucre — the involucels. 

Point out the scales — the pales. 

Point out the rachis — the torus. 

§ 2. The Flower. 

Number, What is the radical number of the flower? 

Construction. Name all its organs. How many are there of each ? 

Is it complete? What is lacking? 

Is it regular? How irregular ? 

Is it symmetrical? How unsymmetrical ? 

Why polypetalous, or gamopetalous ? 

Distinguish the torus — the disk. 

§ 3. The Calyx and Corolla, or Perianth. 

Form. Is it polyphyllous ? Are its leaves united? 

What term defines the special form ? 
Quality. In surface, is it smooth? — hairy? — granular? 

What term or terms define the color? 



290 APPENDIX. 

§ 4. Sepals and Petals. 
Life, How long is their duration? What term defines it? 
Number. How many are there ? 
Place. Define carefully their aestivation. 
Form, Describe the pattern of their outline. 
Nectary, Describe it, if conspicuous. 
Lip, What is the special form of the lip, if any? 
Corona, Describe its situation, parts, and form. 

§ 5. The Stamens. 

Number, How many? — definite, or indefinite? 

Place, as to the adjacent organs— are they opposing? alternating ? etc. 

Are they exserted ? — included ? — connivent ? 

Are they ascending ? — declining ? 

Why are they hypogynous ? Why epipetalous ? etc. 

How connected — Gynandrous ? Syngenecious ? 

Diadelphous ? — Monadelphous ? etc. 
Construction. Of what members are they composed ? 

What member is lacking when sessile ? — sterile ? 

Are they didynamous? — tetradynamous? 

§ 6. Anther. 
Place, How is it attached to the filament? Which way does it face? 
Dehiscence. How does it open ? In what direction? 
Construction. In how many cells is it divided ? What appendages 
are there ? 

Form, What term defines their shape ? 

§ 7. Pollen, Pollinia. 

Form. Describe the pollen, or pollinia, as to form and quality 

§ 8. The Style. 

Number, How many styles? Are they united or separate? 
Place, How situated on the ovary? In what posture? 
Form, What term describes their form ? 

§ 9. The Stigma. 

Number, How many stigmas? 

Place. How attached to the style ? When is the stigma sessile ? 

Form. Of its many shapes, which is this ? 



QUESTIONS. 291 

§ 10. Ovary. 

Cofistruction. Is it simple? How compounded? 

How many cells ? Is it free or adherent ? 
Form, What term or terms define its shape ? 
Placentation. Is the placenta central, free-central, or parietal? 

§ 11. Ovules. 

Place, What is their position in the cell ? 
Construction, Are they anatropous ? — orthotropous ? 

§ 12. Fruit. 

Number, How many carpels, whether distinct or united? 

How many cells has the fruit? Same as the ovary? 
Dehiscence, Is this a dehiscent, or indehiscent fruit? 

What term describes its mode of dehiscence? 
Kinds. Of the twenty-seven special kinds, which is this ? 

Analyze its coverings, substance, cells, valves, carpophore, etc 
Form, What term or terms indicates its shape ? 
Quality, Describe its color, texture, and clothing. 

§ 13. Seed. 

Number, Are there few, or indefinite, or how many? 

Construction, in regard to albumen, and cotyledons ? 

Form. What term defines their shape ? 

Quality y as to color, surface, or clothing. 

Appendages, Have they wings ? — or a coma ? — or an aril ? etc. 

IV. ON THE FLOWER REGION OF THE COMPOSITES. 
§ 1. Head. 

Kind, Are the heads dioecious? — or monoecious? etc. 
Form. Are they discoid ? — radiate ? — radiant ? 

§ 2. Involucre. 
Kind, Is the involucre simple ? — imbricated ? — calyculate ? 
Form. What term defines the shape ? 

§ 3. Scales and Pales. 

Number. Few ? — definite ? — or indefinite ? 



^9^ APPENDIX. 

Place, Are they erect? — appressed ? — loose? etc. 
Form, Define their outline, margin, apex. 
Qualities, What texture ? — surface ? — color ? 

§ 4. Receptacle. 

For7fi. Is the receptacle flat ?— convex ? — conical ? 
Quality, Is it naked ? — chaffy ? — bristly ?— alveolate ? 

§ 5. Rays, or Ray Flowers. 

Nu77iber, How many ? — in how many rows ? 
Kind. Are they perfect ? — ^1 — ? ? — sterile ? — fertile ? 
Form, Are they ligulate ? — tubular ? — linear ? — oblong? etc. 
Quality, What is their color ? 

§ 6. Disk Flowers. 

Number, Can they be easily counted ? 
Kind. Are they perfect ? — 6 ?— ? ? — fertile or sterile ? 
Form, Are they tubular ? — 4-toothed ? — 5-toothed ? 
Quality. Of what color ? 

§ 7. Stigmas. 
Place, Are they straight ? — incurved ? — recurved ? 
Form. Are they flat ? — terete ? — pointed ? — truncate ? 
Quality, How is their surface clothed ? 

§ 8. Fruit (— achenia or cypsela). 
Form, Describe its shape, whether linear, terete, compressed, etc. 
Quality. What of its surface, and color ? 

§ 9. Pappus. 
Life, Is the pappus deciduous or persistent on the fruit ? 
Number. Of how many bristles or scales. 
Construction. Is it stiped ? or simple ? or double? 
Form. Is it capillary ? scaly ? plumous ? barbed ? 
Quality, What is the color ? 

V. ON THE FLOWER REGION OF THE SEDGES AND 
GRASSES. 

§ 1. Inflorescence (general). 

Place, Are the flowers axillary, or terminal, or both ? 



QUESTIONS. ^93 

Kind, Are they in panicles, or spikes ? — compact or loose ? 
Appendages, How are the branches of the panicle arranged ? 

J Spikes (of the Sedges) or 
§ ^ "jSpikelets (of the Grasses). 

Number, Are there few, or many ? How many ? 
Kind. Are their flowers $ , or 5 , or perfect ( ^ ) ? 

Are they monoecious, or dioecious? 
Form. Describe their particular shape, as terete, ovoid, etc. 
Size. How long, and large are they ? 
Quality. Describe their color or surface character. 

§ 3. Flowers. 

Number in the spike or spikelet — how many? 
Kind. Are they fertile ? or sterile ? or both ? 

How many stamens have they — i, 2, 3, or more ? 

How many stigmas — i, or 2 ? 

§ 4. Glumes. 
Number. Are there i, or 2, glumes, or none ? 

Place. Are they arranged in 2 rows ? or 3 ? or imbricated all around ? 
Form. What is their shape — as lanceolate, carinate, bifid ? 
Size. How long are they relatively ? — intrinsically ? 
Qualities, In texture, herbaceous ? scarious ? What in color ? 

§ 5. Pales, or Perianth. 

Kinds, Are there setae? or petals? or pales? or a perigynium ? 

Number. How many pieces in each flower ? 

Place. What is their posture — erect ? recurved ? free ? 

Form, What the special form of the perigynium? 

Size. What is its relative length? 

Quality. What of its surface ? — its color? 

§ 6. Awns. 
Place, Are they on the back or the tip of the glume or pale 01 

rudiment? 
Form, Are they straight, or bent ? — bristle-form, or gossamer ? 
Size. What is its relative length ? 
Quality, Are they scabrous, or smooth, or feathery? 



294 APPENDIX. 

§ 8. Rudiments (abortive flowers). 

Number. Are there i, or 2, or several? 

Kiftd. Are they staminate, or neutral ? 

Form. Are they a pale ? — a pedicel ? or an awn? 

Quality, Are they ciliate ? scabrous^ hairy? 

§ 9. Anthers. 
Place. How are they attached to the filament ? 

§ 10. Stigmas. 
Form, etc. Are they plumous ? — curved ? — erect ? 

§ 11. Grain. 
Kind. Is it an achenium, a cariopsis, or a utricle ? 
For?n. Is it triquitrous? lens-shaped? oblong? etc. 
Appendages. Is it tipped with a tubercle ? 

VI. ON THE ACTION, ETC., OF PLANTa 

§ 1. Fertilization. 

1. Does this plant produce any nectar? 

2. Describe the place and form of the nectaries. 

3. What seems to be the primary use of them ? 

4. Is the plant wind-fertilized, or insect-fertilized? 

5. What arrangement, if any, prevents self-fertilization? 

6. Is the flower proterandrous ? Is it protogynous? 

7. Is it dimorphous? How does this appear? 

8. How does this favor crossing? 

g. Do the stamens show irritability? How do they act? 

10. Is the pollen in grains, or in pollinia? 

11. Describe the pollinia. How and by what extracted? 

12. How are they brought to bear on the stigma? 

13. What arrangement to save the honey from the ants? 

14. How is it secured against rain and dew ? 

15. Are the flowers, any or all, cleistogene? Describe such. 

16. How is the pollen thus economized ? 

§ 2. Sleep. 

1. Is this plant sensitive to night and day? — light and shade? 

2. What are the indications of it? 



QUESTIONS. 295 

3. At what hour does it open its flowers? 

4. How long do they remain open? When do they closs? 

5. Do they open and close more than once? 

6. Do the leaves change position at night, or in shade ? 

7. Describe the change. 

8. How is the nectar aflfected by the flowers' closing? 

§ 3. Irritability. 

1. Is this plant sensitive to touch ? In which organ ? 

2. How is this indicated ? 

§ 4. Movements. 

1. How is this vine furnished for climbing ? 

2. Has it any special organs ? What are they ? 

3. Have you observed their movements ? Describe them. 

4. What seems to be the purpose of this motion ? 

5. After it has reached an object, how does the tendril act? 

6. How does a vine without tendrils climb ? 

7. Is it aided by its petioles ? Explain. 

8. If it be a twining vine, which way does it turn ? 

9. To find a support, what movement have you observed ? 
jio. Is it aided by hairs, or prickles? — by rootlets? 

§ 5. Classification. 

1. Is this plant an Exogen, or an Endogen? 

2. By what marks do you determine this? 

3. Has it a stigma, and a seed-vessel ? Is it then a Gytnnosperm? 

4. Have you determined its Order ? — its Genus ? — its Species ? 



INDEX. 



PRONOUNCING, GLOSSARIAL AND REFERENTIAL 



"^ 




A. 

A (in composition) prefixed to a Greek 

word, signifies without; as apetalous^ 

without petals. 
Abies, 218. 

Abortive, not developed, imperfect. 
Abortion, non-development of a part. 
Abrupt at base, tnincate. 
Absinthe, 147. 
Acacia, a-ka-shi-a, 124. 
Acaulescent, apparently stemless, 54, 66, 

143. 
Accessory, something superadded. 
Accrescent, growing after flowering ; sc. 

calyx. 
Accumbent, lying against the edge, 103. 

See Cotyledons. i « , 

Acer, 192. \ 

Acerous, needle-shaped, 214. y 
Achenjum (a-ken-i-um), plu. If 

achenia, 48, 147, 178. S 

Aconite, 64. 
Acorns, 209, 210. 
Aciileate, armed with prickles. 
Acuminate, extended into a point. 
Acute, ending in a sharp angle. 
Adam-and-Eve (Aplectrum), 236. 
Adherent, growing to, 87. <j^ 

Adherent Ovary. Current. Mm 

110, 233. m\ 

Adiantum, 27. Ip 

Adnate, growing fast 

to, 74, 134. 
Adnate stipules, 

Rose. 
Adonis,^ 64. 
Adventitious, out of the normal position, 

129. 
Aerial region, 20. 
uEsculus, 194. 
Estivation, 42. 

Affinity, resemblance in essential organs 
African Hemp, 258. 
Agapanthus, 258. 
Agave, a-g^-ve, 263. 
Aggregate, assembled close together. 
Aglumaceous, without glumes. 
Air plants, 239. 
Ala, pi. Alse, wings, 118. 



R\ 





Albumen, 83, 42, 111. 

Albuminous, 186. 

Alburnum, the sap-wood (p. 107). 

Alfillirea or Alfilaria, the '' Pin Grass " ol 

the Pacific Coast (Erodium cicutarium), 

87. 
Algae, seaweeds, 27. 
Allium, 258. 
Aloe, American, 263. 
Aloes, 258. 

Alpine Primrose, 168. 
Alternate generation, 22. 
Alternate leaves, 193. 
Alternating stamens, 33. 
Alveolate, with pits, as a honeycomb, 
Alyssum, 103. 
Amaryllis. 263. 

Amaryllidaceae, 262. .^ti 

Ament, a deciduous spike, 208. ^^ 

Am6rphous, without definite fo m. a • 
Amplexicaul, stem-clasping, M 

98, 251. JL,^ ^ 

Amygdalus, 116. ^^^^ 

Anagallis, 168. , ^-^ f 

Analysis, 13. Yfl I 

Anatropous ovule, 56. M / 
Ancipital, two-edged, \\J. 

244. ■ ^-^ I --^ 

Androgynous, staminate and pistillate 

flowers together in a cluster, 266. 
Anemdne, 61. 
Angiosperms, 220. 
Anise, 136. 

Annual, living one year ; yearly, 68. 
Annular cells, cells distended with rings, 

225. 
Antennaria, 139. 
Anterior, facing outward. 
Anthemis, 147. 
Anthelmintic, expelling or killing 

worms. 
Anther, innate, attached by base. | 
Anther, adnatOj attached by back. 
Anther, versatile, attached 

by middle. 
Anther, valvate, dehiscing 

by valves. 
An thesis, the act of flowering. 
Antheridia, staminate organs of 

Mosses, etc., 14. 




INDEX. 



297 




Artirrhinnm, 176. 

Ai)eiai()us, without petals, 56. 

Aphyllous, without leaves. 

Apopysis, a swelling. See Fig. I, 7, a. 

Apex, the summit or tip, 21. 

Apple Tree, 107, 111. 

Apple Moss, 17. 

Appressed, closely applied, but not ad- 
hering to ; the same as udpressed. 

Apterous, without wings. 

Aquatic, living in the water. 

Araceae, 232. 

Arb6reus, arborescent, tree-like. 

Arbutus, trailing, 158. 

Arcuate, arched or curved like a bow. 

Arctostaphylus, 158. 

Aril, an extra seed-envelope, as 
in Enonymus. 

Aiisaema, 231. 

Aristate, awned ; bearing an awn. 

Armed, bearing prickles, spines, 
etc. 

Arnica, 147. 

Aroids, 232. 

Articulated, jointed. 

Artemiisia, 147. 

Arum, 232. 

Ascending, arising obliquely ; assurgent. 

Ascidia, leaves holding water, 161. 

Asclepiadaceae, 197. 

Asclepias, 197, 199. 

Ashj 93. 

Aspidium, 27. 

Assafoetida, 137. 

Assimilate, to digest as food. 

Aster, China, 147. 

Asterworts. 146. 

Attar of Roses, 116. 

Arctostaphylus, 158. 

Auricula, 168. 

Amiculate, w^ith ear-shaped lobei 

Awn, the beard of Barley, and 
like, 276. 

Axial root, 50. 

Axil, the angle between the petiole and 
branch, on the upper side, 90. 

Axillary, growing out of the axils, 90. 

Axis, the central body or column, 13. 

B. 

Baccate, berry-like. 

Balm. 

Balsamine, 95. 

Bamboo, 225, 280. 

Banner, same as vexillum, 118. 

Bark, the outer layers of Ex- 
ogenous stems, 1(37. 

Barley, 279. 

Bartramia, 18. 

Bar tram, John, 18. 

Basilar style, attached to the base of 
the ovary. Brunella, 180. 

Bath Flower, 249. 

Bdellium, 137. 

Beaked, ending in an extended tip, 267. 

Bean, 125. 

Bearberry. See Arctostaphylus. 

Bearded, with awns, or tufted hairs. 



es,'74. Ml 
d the 7^ 




Beech, 111. Beech Tree, 213. 

Begonia, 120. 

Bellworts, 251. [pulp. 

Berry, a fruit with its seeds immersed in 

Bi, Bis (in compound words), twice. 

Biennial, of 2 years, 125. 

Biennial-fruit, 210. 

Bifid, cleft into 2 parts, 79. 

Bifoliate, with two leaflets. 

Big Trees of Calaveras. 221. 

Bilabiate, two-lipped, 173. 

Binate, two growing to- 
gether. See Bifoliate. 

Bindweeds, 187. 

Blpinnate, twice pinnated. "' 

Bipinnatifid, twice pin- 
natifid, 24. 

Bird Knotweed, 201. 

Biternate, twice ternate, 58. 

Bivalved, two-valved. 

Blackberry, 116. 

Blade, the main part of a leaf. 

Blinding Tree, 207. 

Blanched, whitened for want of light ; the 
same as etiolated. 

Bloodroot, 64. 

Bloom, a fine white powder on some 
plants. 

Blueberry, 158. 

Blue Curls, 179.— Flag, 241.- Grass, 274.— 
Violet, 77. 

Blue-eyed Grass, 244. 

Bouncing Bet, 83. 

Boxberry, 147. 

Borwood, 207. 

Brachiate, with opposite branches. 

Bract, a reduced leaf near the flowers, 56. 

Bracteoles, Bractlets, reduced bracts. 

Brake, Common, 27, 

Branches, the divisions of a stem. 

Brassica, 103. 

Brazil Wood, 125. 

Bristles, stiff, sharp hairs. 

Brunella, 180. 

Bryology, the science of Mosses. 

Bud, The, a rudiment, 186. 

Bud-scales, reduced leaves covering tlae 
bud. 

Bulb, an underground bud, 29, 35. 

Bulblets, little bulbs formed in the leaf- 
axils and falling off. 

Bulbous Crowfoot, 50. %^ 

Bulb, a scaly, 35. ^f 

Bulb, a coated, or tunicated, 35. "^jT' 

Bulrushes, 270 ^^ 

Burgundy Pitch, 223. ^*^ 

Butter-and-Eggs, 173. 

Buttercup, 48. 

Butterfly Weed, 199. 

Buxus, 207. 

C. 

Cabbage, 103. 

Cabbage Palmetto, 224. 

Caducous, dropping oft' early, 6r>. 

Cae^pitous, forming tufts, or a turf. 

Caladium, 233. 

Calamus Kudentum, 227. 

Calceolaria, 176. 

Calico Bush, 155. 



298 



INDEX. 




California Po])py, 71. 

Calla, 232. 

Calopogon, 235. 

Calyculate, having an outer calyx, or 
calyx-like involucre. 

Calyptra, the cap of a Moss-capsule, 14. 

Calyx, the outer floral envelope, 31. 

Calyx free, not joined to other organs, 
110. 

Calyx inferior, the same as calyx free, 108. 

Cambium, the new layer of wood, next 
under the bark. 

Ca-mgF-li-a, 115. 

Camomile, 147. 

Campanulate, bell-shaped, 181. 

Camwood, 125. 

Canada Balsam, 223. 

Candy Tuft, 103. 

Canescent, whitish with minute hairs. 

Capers, 97, 207. 

Capillary, very fine, hair-like, 167. 

Capitate, inflorescence head-shaped. 

Capsella, 100. 

Capsule, a dry, dehiscent fruit, 
14, 33. MM', 

Capsular, of or like a capsule. «?//- ' 

Caraway, 136. 

Cardamine (car-da-mi-ne), 102. 

Carex, 265. 

Carinate, boat-shaped, keeled, 118. 

Carinse, the 2 lower petals of a papilliona- 
ceous flower, 118. 

Carnivorous Plants, 161. 

Carob, 125. 

Carpels, the divisions of a 
fruit, 48, 220. 

Carpels distinct. Thallctrum 

Carpinus, 214. 

Carpophore, the fruit-bearer, 85, 133., 

Carrion Flower, 199. 

Carrot, 136. 

Cdrthamus, 147, 246. 

Carum, 134. 

Caruncle, an appendage of a seed, 205. 

Caryophyllaceae, 82. 

Caryophyllaceous flower, i. e., 
5 petals in a tubular calyx. 

Caryopsis, a fruit like a Wheat- 
kernel, with the seed insepa- 
rable from its coat, 274. 

Cascarilla, 207. . 

Cassjlva, 207. 

Cassias, 123. 

Castor oil, 206. 

Catch Fly, 83. 

Catechu, 125. 

Catkin, the same as ament, 208. 

Catmint, 178. 

Caudex, the stem of a Palm, etc., 80, 224. 

Caulescent, having a stem above-ground, 
54. 

Cauline, of the stem. 

Caulis, an herbaceous stem, 29. 

Cedars, Giant, 221. 

Cedars, Red, 223. 

Celery, 136. 

Cellular tissue, 17, 225. 

Centrifugal inflorescence, 104, 140. 

Centripetal inflorescence, 41, 126. 





Century Plant, 263. 
Cereal, relating to grains, com, etc. 
Cernuous, nodding (less than pendulous). 
Chaff, the same as pales, 139, 273. 
Chalaza, the place where the ovule joina 

its stalk. 
Chamserops, 226. 

Chartaceous, with texture like paper. 
Checkerberry, 147. 
Cheiranthus, 103. 
Chelidonium, 71. 
Cherry, 116. 
Cherry Laurel, 116. 
Chervil, 136. 
Chestnut, 210, 213, 214. 
Chickweed, 78. 
Chick Wintergreen, 164. 
Chickory, 147. 
Chimaphila, 153, 154. 

China Aster, 147. [136. 

Chlorophyl, the green grains in leaf-cells, 
Chrysanthemum, 147. 
Cicely, 131. 
Cichoriiim, 147. 
Cicuta, 137. 
Cilia, plu. ciliae, hairs like the eyelash, 

14, 18. 
Ciliate, fringed with hairs, 132. 
Cinereous, ash-colored, ash-gray. 
Cinnamon Fern, 26. 
Cinquefoil, 112. 
Circinate, rolled inward from the top. 



Circulation of the sap, 110. 
Cirrhous, furnished with a tendril, 117. 
Circumsclssile, opening by a lid, all 

around, 43 ; Fig. XLIII, 5. 
Clarkia, 131. 
Clavate, club-shaped. 
Claw. See Unguiculate, 85, 110. 
Claytonia, 43. 
Clayton's Osmunda, 24. 
Cleistogene flowers, never opening, 74. 
Clematis, 64. 
eiianthus, 125. 
Climbing Plants, 186. 
Climbing Fern, 27. 
Clintonia, 256. 
Clove Pink, 80. 
Clover, 125. 

Club Mosses, 27. ^^ 

Cochleate, spiral like the Buail- ^a 

sbell. ^g^ 

Cdcoanut, 226. ^^ 

Cocoanut Palm, 228. ^ 

Coherent, united as to similar parts. 
Cohesion, union of similar parts. 
Colocasia, 233. 

Collateral, placed side by side. 
C61umbine. 64. 

Colored, of any color except green. 
Column, combined stamens and 

styles, Cypripedium. 235. ^^ ,<, 

Coma, the long hairs of a seed, Vv •-J 

as cotton, etc., 197. 
Commissure, the joined faces 

of the carpels of a cremocarp, 135. 
Complete Flower, having the 4 kinds of 

organs, 47. 



INDEX. 



299 




Componnd leaf, having several leaflets, 58. 

Compositae, 146. 

Condupiicate, leaf folded, the two 

halves face to face. 
Cone, the scaly fruit of the Pines, 

etc., 215. [ent. 

Confluent, uniting ; same as coher- 
Coniferae, 220. 
Conium, 137. 

Conjugate, united by pairs. 
Connate, growing together, 

as leaves, etc. 
Contorted, twisted ; petals 

over-lapping all one way, 183. 
Connectile, that part of the 

filament which connects the 

two anther cells, 180. 
Connivent, converging toward 

each other. 
Convallaria, 256. 

Converging petals, see Connivent, 151. 
Convolute, see Contort- ^^-^ 

ed. Also when the /f?"'^ 

leaves or petals are ((( J) 

rolled one within an- Vi:5:;->v 

other. ^^-^^ 

Convolvulaceae, Convolvulus, 187. 
Copaiva balsam, 125. 
Cordate (leaf), heart-shaped, 66, 73. 
Core6psis, 147. 
Coriaceous, leather-like, 54. 
Coriander, 136. [258. 

Corra, a solid bulb-like stem, 50, 231, 
Corn Cockle, 83,— Speedwell, 170. 
Corolla, the inner floral envelope, 

32. 
Corona, a crown in the midst of 

the flower, 196, 262. 
Corymb, a level-topped cluster, 

centripetal, 114, 155. 
Corymbous, of or like a corymb. 
Costate, with rib-like ridges, 
Cotton, 104. 
Cotton Grass, 270, 
Cotyledon (seed-lobe), 

42, 86, 110, 186. 
Cotyledon accumbent, 

102. [104. 

Cotyledon incumbent, 
Cotyledon condupiicate, Mustard. 
Cowslip, 161, 168. 
Cow Tree, 199. 
Crab Tree, 117. 
Cranberry. 158. 
Cranesbill, 83. 
Creeper, a prostrate stem under or above 

ground, [102. 

Cremocarp, the fruit of the Umbelworts, 
Crenate, with rounded teeth, 11, 177. 
Crenulate, the rounded teeth small. 
Cress, Toothroot, 101. 
Crest, an elevated ridge. 
Crinum, 263. 

Cristate, having an elevated ridge. 
Crocus, 246. 
Croton Oil, 206. 
Crowfoot, 46, 62. 
Crown of the root, 54. 
Crown Imperial, 238. 






Cruciferae, 103. [100. 

Cruciform corolla, cross-shaped. 

Cryptogamia, 16. 

Cryptogams, 27. 

Cryp-tog-a-mous, 16, 27. 

Cucullate, hood-shaped, 73. 

Cucumber, Indian, 249. 

Cucumber, Squirting, 95. 

Ctdm, the straw of the grasses, 264. 

Cummin, 136. \ 

Cuneate (leaf), cuneiform, wedge- 
shaped. 

Cupulifereae, 213. 

Cuspidate, with a sharp, slender x 
point. [ing. m 

Cuticle, the outer skin or cover- ' ' ' 

Cyclamen, 168. 

Cydonia, 117. [104. 

Cyme, a centrifugal cluster, 

Cyperaceae, 268. 

Cyperus. 264, 268. 

Cypripedium, 238. 

Cypsela, the fruit of the 
Compositae, 142. 

D. 

Daffodn, 261, 263. 

Dahlia, 147. 

Dalbergia, 125. 

Damask Rose, 115. 

Dandelion, 95, 143, 177. 

Darlingtonia, 160. 

Date Palm, 225, 228. [son, 33. 

Deciduous, falling at the end of the sea- 

Dehiscence, act or manner of opening. 

Decompound, much compounded, 129. 

Decurrent leaves, running down 

the stem. 
Decumbent, first erect, then^ 

prostrate. w^v^ 

Definite, of a special number. jn^ 

Defoliation, casting off 

of leaves. 
Deltoid, form of the Gr. 

letter A. [form. 

Dendroid, tree-like in 
Dentaria, 102. 

Dentate, with teeth turned outward. 
Depauperate, less developed than usual. 
Depressed, flattened from above. 
Desmodium gyrans, 124. 
Di (in Gr. compounds), two. 
Diadelphous, stamens in two sets, 118. 
Diagnoscis, the distinctive character. 
Diandrous, having two stamens. 
Dianthus, 82, 83. 

Dichotomous, forked or 2-cleft, 17, 78. 
Di-c6t-y-led-o-nous, embryo 2-lobed, GG. 
Didynamous, with 2 long and 2 short " 

stamens, 174. i 

Diffenbachia, 233. [in, 

Diffuse, much branched and spreal 
Digitate, leaflets distinct, 

palmately arranged, 194. 
Digitalis, 176. 
Dill, 136. 

Dimerous, flowers two- 
parted. Circaea, 131. 
Dim6rphism, 162, 203. 



1 




300 



IKDEX. 




Dioecious, gtaminate and pistillate flowers 
on dilierent plants?, 137. 

Dionaea, 160. 

Dipterix, 125. 

Dipterous, with two wings. 

Dischidia, 199. 

Discoid Head, 145. 

Disk, a laj^er between the sta- 
mens and ovary, Alcheniilla. 
184. ^ 

Dissected, cut into deep lobes, incised. ^ 

Dis-ti-chous, arranged in two rows, h 

Divaricate, wide-spread, strac]:gllng, 24. '\ 

Divergent, spread g apart, more or less. V 

Dock, 50, 203. 

Do-de-cath-e-on, 162, 168, 177. 

Dogtooth Violet, 29. 

Dorsal, on the back. 

Double Rose, 114. 

Double Pink, 82. 

Douglas Fir, 221. 

Downy, clothed with short, weak hairs. 

Dracena, 258. 

Dragon's Blood, 258. 

Dragon's Root, 231. 

Drosera, 161. 

Drupe, a stone-fruit, as Cherry, Hickory. 

Dumb Cane, 238. 

Duramen, heartwood, 107. 

E. 

E, or Ex (in composition), without ; as 
Ebracteate, without bracts. * 

Elecampane, 147. fv) 

Elliptical, form of an ellipse. W/. 

Elm, 36, 176. W^ 

Elongated, lengthened, extended. >f\ i 
Emarginate, notched at the end, R 1 

Embryo, straight : convolute, 32, 
40. 

Embryo coiled around | 
albumen. 

Enchanter's Night- 
shade, 131. 

Endogens, 33, 229. 

Endogenous structure, 225. 

Ensiform, sword-shaped, 241. 

Entire Margin, even-edged, 31. 

Ephemeral, enduring for one day. 

Epi (in composition), upon, as 

Epidermis, same as cuticle. 

Epigea 158. 

Epigynous, upon the ovary, 184. 

Epilobium, 131. 

Epipetalous, upon the corolla. 

Epiphytes, Air Plants, 239. 

Equisetacese, 27. [241. / 

Equitant, riding astride (aestivation), ( 

Erica, 157. ^ 

Eriophorum, 270. 

Erose, eroded, as if gnawed. 

Erythronium, 30, 48, 251, 257. 

Eschscholtzia, 71. 

Etiolated, whitened for want of light. 

Evanescent corolla, 170. 

Evening Primrose, 125, 168, 173, 193. 

Evergreen, 56. 




Everlastings, 147, 

Exalbumhious, without albumen, 186. 
Excaecaria, 207. [193, 218. 

Excurrent (^tem), running to the top, 107. 
Exogens, 220, 229. 
Exogenous structure, 108, 225. 
Exserted, projecting out of or beyond. 
Exstipulate, without stipules. 
Extrorse (anthers), turned outward. 



r. 

Fagopyram, 203. 

Falcate, scythe-shaped, curved, 206. 

Fascicle, a bundle, 46, 214. 

Fasciculate, in a bundle, 46. 

Feather-veined, see Pinni-veined. 

Ferruginous, color of iron-rust. 

Ferns, 20. 

Fertile (flowers), producing seed, 219. 

Fertilization, see Pollenization, 185, 216. 

Feverfue, 147. 

Fibrils, the last division of roots, 20. 

Field SpeedweU, 170. 

Figworts, 174. 

Filament, the stalk of a stamen, 32. 

Filbert, 213. 

Filiform, slender like a thread, 14, 260. 

Filices, 26. 

Fimbriate, fringed, having the border 

edged with slender processes, 97. 
Fir, 218— Douglas Fir, 221. 
Fistular, hollow, as Wheat straw. 
Flabelliform, fan-shaped, 225. 
Flax, Toad, 173. 
Flax, New Zealand, 258. 
Fleur-de-lis (Flur-de-le), 241. 
Floccous, with hairs in soft fleecy tufts. 
Flora, (a) the spontaneous vegetation of 

a country ; % a written description of 

the same. 
Floral envelopes, the sepals and petals. 
Florets, 138, 141. 
Florets of the disk, 141. 
Florets of the ray, 141. 
Flowerless Plants, 16. 
Flowers not made for man, 174. 
Flower Region, 29. 
Flowers regular, 73. 

Foliaceous, leaf -like in form or texture. 
Follicle, a dry, simple fruit, 1-celled, 

1-valved, several-seeded, 197. 
Fool's Parsley, 137. 
Forked carpophore, 132. 
Fork-veined. 22. 
Fox Glove, 176. 
Fragaria, 105. 

Free, not adherent to other organs. 
Free Central Placenta, 163. 
Fringed ; see Fimbriate. 
Fritillaria, 258. [21. 

Frond, an organ serving as stem and leaf, 
Frntescent, shrubby. 
Fruit, 33. 
Fuchsia, 129. 

Fugacious, soon vanishing, 18. 
Fulvous, dull yellowish-brown. 
Fungi, 27. 



rNDEX. 



301 



Funnel-form; see Infundibuliform. 
Funiculus, the seed-stem, 42, 56. 
Furcate, forked. 
Fusiform, spindle-shaped (root). 

G. 

Galanthus, 263. 

Galbanum, Gum, 137. 

Galeate, the upper lip or petals arched. 

Galingale, 263. [143. 

Gamopetalous, same as Monopetalous, 

Garlic, 258. 

Gaultheria, 149. 

Gaylussacia, 158. 

Geminate, twin, two together. 

Generic characters, 179. 

Geniculate, bent as the knee {genu). 

Genus, pi. Genera, a family group, 18. 

Geraniaceae, 97. 

Geranium, 40, 83. 

Gerardia, 176. 

Germination, 186, 277. 

Gibbous, obliquely tumid. 

Glabrous, smooth, not hairy, 73, 134. 

Gla-di-o-lus, 244. 

Glandular, with glands, secreting organs. 

Glans, a nut, as an acorn. 

Glaucous, sea-green, bluish-green, usually 
with a bloom, or whitish powder, 34. 

Globous, rounded, globular, 151. 

Glumes, chaffy envelopes, 265. 

Glumlferge, the division (class) which in- 
cludes the grass-like orders. 

Golden Alexanders, 134. 

Golden Chain, 125. 

Goldenrod, 147. 

Granular, composed of grains. 

Grass Pink, 235. 

Grasses, The, 271. 

Green Dragon, 332. 

Green Rose, 115. 

Ground Ivy, 176. 

Growth is downward, 110. 

Gum Arabic, 125. 

Gymnema, the Cow Tree, 199. 

Gymnosperms, with naked seeds, 220. 

Gynandrous, stamens and pis- 
tils conjoined. See Column, 235. 

Gynoecium, the pistils as a whole. 

H. 

Habit, :}he general aspect of a plant, 117. 
Habitat, the natural locality of a plant. 
Haemanthus, 263. 
Hairs, hairy, hirsute, 104. 
Hastate, with the base lobes abrupt- 
ly spreading, as in a halbert. 
Hawthorn, 117. 
Hay Fever, 32. 
Hazel, 213. 
Hearts-ease, 75. 
Heart- wood, the duramen, 107 
Heather, 157. 
Heathwort, 157. 
Hedge Mustard, 185. 
Helianthus, 147. 
Hellebore, 59, 64 
Hemlock, 218. 



Hemp, African, 258. 

Hepatica, 27, 55. 

Herb, a plant with an annual stem, 29. 

Herb Annual, 68. 

Herb Perennial, 46. 

Herb Robert, 86. 

Herbaceous, green and cellular,not woody. 

Heronsbill, 87. 

Herbarium, a collection of dried plants. 

Hermaphrodite (flower), with both sta- 
mens and pistils. 

Heterogamous, two sorts of flowers in the 
same head. 

Hexandrous, with 6 stamens. 

Hilum, the eye or scar of a seed. 

Hip, 114. 

Hirsute, hairy with rather long hairs. 

Hispid, bristly with stiff hairs, 132. 

Hoarhound, 182. 

Hoary, frost-colored, grayish. 

Holy Spirit Plant. £39. 

Homogamous, bead with all the flowers 
alike, as to stamens and pistils. 

Honey, 59. 

Honeysuckle, 173. 

Hood, any hood-shaped organ, 197. 

Hooded, see Cucullate. 

Hood-leaved Violet, 74, 

Hop (Humulus), 187. 

Horns, certain little projections in the 
Asclepias, etc., 197. 

Horse Chestnut, 192. 

Horse-shoe Geranium, 86. 

Horsetail Rushes, 27. 

Hortus siccus (hort. sic), an herbarium. 

Huckleberry (Whortleberry), 158. 

Hyacinth, 35, 238. 

Hyaline, transparent, or nearly so. 

Hybridization, 182. 

Hybrid, a cross-breed between two species. 

Hypo (in composition), un- 
der ; as 

Hypogynous, under the 
ovary, or free (sc. sta- 
mens), 48. 

Hyp6xis, 259. 

Hyssop, 182. 



Imbricate, Imbricated, over- 
lapping by both edges. Lily, 
43, 106. 

Immortelles, 147. 

Inaxial root, 50. 

Incised, divided deeply, as if cut. 

Included, inclosed within, or shorter than. 

Incumbent (embryo), 100. 

Indefinite, not easily coimted, 47. 

Indehiscent, not opening. 

Indian Cress, 95. —Cucumber, 249. 
—Soap, 195. -Turnip, 231. 

India Rubber, 207. 

Indigenous, native of a country. 

Indigo, 125. 

In duplicate- valvate aestivation. . ^ 

Indusium, the shield covering \^^^J 
the f niit-dot (sorus) of a Fern. ^^-'^^ 

Inferior ovary, same as adherent ovary, 
133, 233. 




n 



302 



IKDEX. 




Inflected (petal), with the point bent in- 
ward, 133. 

Inflorescence, flower-arrangement, 41. 

Infundibiiliform corolla, the ^sTT^-^ 
tube gradually enlarging ^^j^>* 
into the limb. ^""^T 

Innate (anther), joined by its Jl 

base to the filament, 74, 267. '• 

Insects as pollen-bearers, 41, 48, 52, 60, 80, 
82, 83, 91, 118, 128, 135, 145, 157, 163, 1T3, 
180, 197, 201, 235, 236, 237, 240, 243. 254. 

Inserted, refers to the point of junction 
or apparent origin. 

Integument, a coat or covering. 

Internodes, 80, 85. 

Introrse (anthers), turned inward, 41. 

Inula, 147. 

Involucre, Involucel, 132. 

Involute, rolled inward. 

Irregular flowers, 73. 

Ipomaea, 183. 

Iridaceae, Irids, 244. 

Iris, 241. 

Ironwood, 213. 

Isatis, 103. 

Itaka, 125. 

Ivy Geranium, 97. 

Ivy-leaved Flax, 174. 

J. 

Jack-in-the-pulpit, 239. 

Jacobaea, 263. 

Jalap, 188. 

Jatropha, 207. 

Jewel Weed, 93. 

Jointed, with joints, articulated, 83. 

Jonquil, 261. 

Juniperus, 223. 

K* 

Kalmia, 155. 

Keeled. See Carinate. 

Kino, gum, 125. 

Knotweed, 200 

li. 

Labiatse, Labiate Plants, 182. 

Labiate (flowers), lip -shaped, mouth- 
shaped, 172, 180, 182. 

Labiirnum, 125. 

Lady's Delight, 128.— Eardrops, 128.— 
Slipper, 175, 233, 240.— Thumb, 203. 

Laciniate, slashed, with deep incisions. 

Lactescent, containing lac, or milk. 

Lacustrine, growing in lakes. 

Lambert Pine, 221. 

Lamina, the blade of a leaf. 

Lanceolate, lance-shaped, 14. 

Lanuginous, woolly. 

Lapsana, 91. 

Larkspur, 59, 64. 

Latex, the turbid or milky juice of 
plants. 

Lathyrus, 118. 

Latin names of plants, 18. 

Lactuca, 147. 

Lateral, attached to the side (style 
and ovary), 106. 

Laurel, The American, 155. 

Laurel, Cherry, 116. 




Lavandula, Lavender, 182. 

Leaf-stalk, petiole, 31, etc. 

Leaf-arrangement, 193.— Compound, 58.— 
Hues of, I90.-Modified, 120, 186, 256.— 
Kadical, 47.— Shape depends on the 
venation, 190.— Use of acrid, 50. 

Leaf Region, 29. 

Leaf, the type of the plant, 256. 

Leaflets, the pieces of a compound leaf, 56. 

Leek, 258. 

Legume, a simple, dry, 1-celled, 2-valved, 
several-seeded fruit, 118. 

Leguminosa), Leguminous Plants, 125. 

Lenticular, shape of a convex lens. 

Lentils, 125. 

Leucojum, 263. 

Lettuce, 147. 

Liber, the inner bark. 

Lichens, Scale-Mosses, 16. 

Ligulate (corolla), strap-sliaped, 143. 

Ligule, the stipules of Grasses, 271. 

Liliaceae, Lilyworts, 257. 

Liliaceous flower or corolla, 
i. e., a 6-parted perianth. 

Lilies of the Field, 62. 

Lily of France, 241. 

Lily of the Valley, 255. 

Lily, Water, Nymphsea, 91. 

Limb, the border (sc. of the flower). 

Linaria, 174. 

Linear, long and narrow, 14. 

Linear-lanceolate, 14. 

Linear-subulate, 17. 

Liquorice, 125. 

Liver-leaf, 54. 

Liverworts, He-^ 
paticss, 27. 

Lobed palmate- 

Lobed pinnately. 
Loculicidal, opening 

into a cell, 253. 
Locust, 121. 
Locusta, a spikelet of 

the Grasses. 
Logwood, 124. 

Loment, a jointed legume, 123. 
Loosestrife, 165. \^ 

Lovage, 136. ^ 

Lunaria, 103. ^ 

Lunate, crescent-shaped. ^ 

Lychnis, 83. 
Lycopods, 27. 
Lygodium, 27. 
Lyrate, or Lyrate-pinnatifid, deeply ] 

lobed in the midst (lyre-shaped?), ; 
Lysimachia, 165. [77. » 

M. 

Maculate, spotted or blotched. 

Maidenhair, 27. 

Male flowers, staminate flowers. 

Mallow, 83. 

Maple, 35, 93, 188, 193. 

Mare scent, withering while persistent. 

Marigold, 147, 246. 

Mast, Mastworts, 213. 

Mat-grasses, 270. 

Maurandia, 176. 




INDEX. 



303 



Mayflower, 158. 

Meadow Rue, 61. 

Medeola, 250. 

Medlar, 117. 

Medulla, pith ; Medullary rays, 107, 189. 

Membranous, thin, like a membrane. 

Mentha, 182. 

Merocarp, one of the carpels of a Cremo- 
carp, 133. 

Metamorphosis, a transformation. 

Midrib (obsolete) the same as midvein. 

Midvein, the central vein of a leaf, 21. 

Milkweed, 195. 

Mitriform, formed like a conical cap. 

Mimosa, 124. 

Modified Leaf, 120. 

Moulds, 27. 

Monos (in Greek compounds), one ; as 

Monadelphous, stamens in one set, 

Monandrous, with one stamen. [91. 

Monkshood, 64. 

Monocarpic perennials, 263 

Monocotyledonous, with one seed- 
lobe, 267. 

Monoecious, with 2 kinds of flowers to- 
gether on the same plant, 214, 231. 

Monogynous, with one pistil. 

Monopetalous. See Gamopetalous. 

Moosewood, 192. 

Morning Glory, 91, 118, 182. 

Mosses, 16. 

Mountain Ash, 117. 

Mouse-ear Everlasting, 137. 

Moving Plant, 123. 

Mucronate, ending with a sharp, ab- 
rupt point (mucro), 244. 

Muhlenburg, Henry, 50. 

Mulberry, 116. 

Mullein, 174, 177-8. 

Multi (in composition), many ; as 

Multifid, cut half-way into many seg- 
ments. 

Muricate, bearing short, hard points. 

Muriform, like a wall of mason-work. 

Muscology, a treatise on Mosses. 

Mushroom, 27. 

Mustard, 102. 

Mustard, Hedge, 185. 

Mycelium, the first, underground growth 
(thallus) of the Fungi or Mushrooms. 

N. 

Naked receptacle, without chaff, 139. 

Naked seeds, 216. 

Narcissus, 261. 

Napiform (root), turnip-shaped, jm 

Nasturtion, 95. ^^ 

Natant, swimming; underwater. ^ 

Naturalized and Foreign Plants, -^h 

143,176. 7 

Nectar, the sweet secretion of flowers. 
Nectarine, 116. 
Nectary, an appendage secreting (."""ri 

nectar, 47. \\Uv 

Nepeta, 177. ^fc/ 

Nepenthes, 161. 
Nettle, 104. 
Net-veined, same as reticulate-veined, 55. 



^ 



Neutral flower, one with neither stameiLd 

nor pistils, as in Hydrangea. 
New Zealand Flax, 258. 
Nightshade, 131. 
Nipplewort, 91. 
Node, nodus, a joint, 78, 85. 
Nodding (flower), inclined, like the Ery- 

thronmm. 
Nomenclature, the rules for naming genera 

and species. 
Normal, according to rule. 
Norway Spruce, 218, 222. 
Nucleus, the kernel (of ovule or seed). 
Nut, same as glans. 
Nutgalls, 213. 
Nutgrass, 268. 

O. 

Oak, 35, 207. 

Oats, 279.— Wild, 251. 

Ob (in composition) denotes in- 
version ; as 

Obcordate, inversely heart- 
shaped. 

Oblanceolate, inversely lance-shaped, 47. 

Oblique, unequal-sided, as an Elm leaf. 

Oblong, a broadly linear form. 

Obovate, inversely ovate, 47. 

Obsolete, past, or out of use ; 
undeveloped, 133. 

Obtuse, blunt or round at 
apex, 35. 

Ob volute, half equitant, each ' 
leaf in the bud embracing 
only one margin of the other. 





Ochrese, sheathing stipules, 200. 

Ochroleucous, cream-colored, pale 
yellow. 

Octo (in composition), eight ; as 

Octandrous, with 8 stamens. 

CEnothera, 125. 

Officinal, for sale in the shops, 171. 

Officinal Speedwell, 170, 176. 

Offset, a short lateral shoot. 

Onagracege, 130. 

Onion, 258. 

Operculum, the lid of a Moss, 14. 

Opium Poppy, 68, 70. 

Opposing (petals), petals and 
stamens opposite, 41, 167. 

Opposite (leaves), two at 
node, 78. 

Orbicular, circular, 152. 

Orchard Grass, 274. 

Orchidaceae, 239. 

Orchidaceous flower, 6- 
parted, 1-Upped. 

Orchis, 233. 

Organized, with mutually-re- 
lated organs, 13. 

Orontium, 232. 

Orris-root, 246. 

Orth6tropous (ovule), erect, 
bent, 214. 

Osmorhiza, 131. 

Osmund Fern, 24. 

Osseous, bony, like the Peach stone. 

Ostrya, 214. 




not 



304 



IKDEX. 




Oval, egs:-shaped with equal ends, ^p^ 
Ovary, '62. A^\ 

Ovary, adherent and coherent, 233. ( t^j 
Ovary inferior, adhering to the nJU/ 

calyx tube, 233. I 

Ovary superior, free from >v 

the calyx, 110. /sr\ 

Ovate, shape of an egg, 56. (^ ) 
Ovate-lanceolate, between ^^/ 

ovate and lanceolate, 35. ^ 
Ovoid, egg-form, applied to solids, 29, 56. 
Ovule erect in the cell ; 

ascending. [cell. 

Ovule suspended in the >---# 

Ovule, the young, im- W/l \r%f 

mature seed. i— ^ ^^ 

Oxalides, plural of Oxalis, ! 
Oxycoccus, 158. 
Oxlip, 168. 



Paeony, 59, 64, 115. 

Pales, or pal8e,the inner chaff of Grasses, 

or of the Composites, 145, 274. 
Palms, Palmaceae, 223, 226. 
Palmetto, 222.— Dwarf, 226.— Saw, 226. 
Palmi-veined, or Palmate-veined, 54. 
Pampas Grass, 104, 280. 
Pancratium, 263. 

Panicle, a raceme compounded, 272. 
Pannage, 212. 
Pansy, 41, 75. 
Papaver, 68. 
Papaveraceae, 67. 

Papilionaceous, pa-piF-yo-na'-shus, 118. 
Pappus, the calyx of the Composites, 139. 
Papyrus, 270. 
Parallel-veined, 31. 

Paraphyses, in the flowers of a Moss, 14. 
Parenchyma, the cellular tissue, 225. 
Paries, a wall ; Parietal, on the wall, 66. 
Parsley, 136. 
Parsnij). 136. 
Parthenium, 147. 
Partridge-berry, 146. 
Pasque Flower, 62. 
Paulinia, 195. 
Pea, 117, 121. 
Peach, 112, 116, 120. 
Peanut, 125. 

Pear, 112, 116. [natifid. i 

Pectinate, like comb-teeth, finely pin- ^ 
Pedate, shaped like a bird's foot. ^ 

Pedicel, the divisions of a peduncle, ^ 

14,41. [30,40. r 

Peduncle, pe-dunk'-l. the flower-stalk, 
Pelargonium, 87. 
Peltate, shield-shaped, 97, 159. 
Pendulous, hanging, 56. 
Pennyroyal, 182. 
Pentamerous, 5-parted, 173. 
Pente (in composition), five ; as 
Pentstemon, 174, 176. 
Pentandrous, with 5 stamens. 
Pepo, a fruit like a melon. 
Peppergrass, 103. 
Peppermint, 182. 

Perennial, living several years, 24, 46. 
Perfect flower : see Hermaphrodite, 47. 




I Perfoliate, through the leaf, 251. 
! Peri (in compositioLi), around; as 
I Perianth, the floral envelope, 31. 
i Pericarp, the seed-vessel. [267. 

Perigynium, the perianth of a Carex, 

Pengynous, inserted around 
the ovary, i. e. on the ca- 
lyx, 106, 184, 268. 

Peristome, 14. 

Persian Insect Powder, 147. 

Persica, The Peach, 201. 

Persistent, remaining long iu 
place, 33. 

Personate, masked ; with lips 
closed, 173. 

Petal, the leaves of the corolla, 31.' 

Petaliferous, bearing petals. 

Petaloid, resembling petals. 

Petiolate, borne on a petiole, 54. 

Petiole, the leaf-stalk, 31. 

Petiolule, the stalk of the leaflets, 37. 

Pharbitis, 187. [229. 

Phenogamia, the Flowering Plants, 33, 

Phoenix, 228. 

Phormium, 258. 

Phyllodia, leaves without a blade. 

Phyllotaxy, leaf-arrangement, 193. 

Pie Plant, 203. 

Pigeon-wheat Moss, 13. 

Pigweed, 143. 

Pilous, with erect, thin hairs. 

Pine, Lambert, 221.— Long-leaved, 218.-- 
Norfolk Island, 223. — Pitch, 217. — 
Prince's, 152.— Ked, 217.— Weymouth, 
217.— White, 214. 

Pinks, 80. 

Pinkworts, 83. [ions of a frond, 21. 

Pinna, pi. pinnse (wings), the divis- 

Pinnate, with 4 or more lateral leaf- 
lets. — Odd pinnate, 114. 

Pinnate, abruptly, with 
no odd leaflet. 

Pinnate, interruptedly, 
leaflets alternately 
smaller. 

Pinnatifid, deeply lobed in a pinnate f;^ 

Pin Oak, 210. [manner, 21. r 

Pipsissewa, 152. [32. ^ 

Pistil , the central organ of the flower, I 

Pistilidia, in the flowers of a Moss, etc., 14. 

Pistillate (flower), bearing pistils, 138. 

Pisum, 118. 

Pitch, Bergunda, etc., 223.— Pine, 215. 

Pitcher Plant, 158. 

Pitted tissue, 221. 

Placenta, pi. Placentae, the cellular part 
of the carpel which bears the ovules. 

Placentae cen- 
tral, 66. 

Placentae free I 
central, 162. 

Placentae parie- 
tal, on the wall. 

Plan of a flower, 32. 

Plantain, 82, 143, 177. 

Plants, Carnivorous, 
101 -Flowering, 33. 

— Flowerless, 16.— Food of, 107.— Sleep 
of, 29, 91.— Tropical, 146. 





INDEX. 



305 



74, 



Pleurisy Root, 199. 

Plicate, folded like a fan, 183. 

Plumous, like a plume ; leatiiery. 

Plumule (a little plume), 111. 

Poa, 271. 

Poet's Narcissus, 262. 

Poiiiciana, 125. 

Pollen, abundance of, 32. 

Pollenization, curious facts in, 41 

77, 80, 82, 85, 91, 118, 128, 135, 145, 157,' 
163, 173, 180, 197, 201, 207, 235, 

236, 237, 240, 243. 
Pollinia, masses of pollen, 197. 
Poly (in composition), many ; as 
Polyandrous, with many stamens, 
Polyanthus 168,261,263. [47. 

Polygonaceae, 203. 
Polygonum, 200. 
Polypetalous, with the petals free and 

distinct, 142. 
Polypod Fern, 20. 
Polytrichum, 15. 
Pome, a fruit like an apple, 108. 
Poor-man's-weather-glass, 168. 
Poppy, 68. 
Poppy Bee, 70. 
Poppy worts, 67, 70. 
Portulaca, 43, 91. 
Portulacaceae, 43. 
Posterior, next to the axis. 
Potato, Sweet, 187. 
Potent ilia, 112. 

Precocious, flowering before leafing. 
Piemorse, ending abruptly, 246. 
Prickles, distinguished from thorns, 114. 
Pride-of-Ohio, 161. 
Primrose, 125, 168. 
Primulacete, Primworts, 161, 168. 
Prince's Pine, 152. 
Prismatic, shaped like a prism, 3, 4, or 

many-sided. 
Procumbent (stem), lying prostrate. 
Produced, unusually extended. 
Proterandrous, 82. 
Prohferous, reproducing, as cymes from 

the midst of a cyme, flowers from the 

midst of a flower. 
Prothallus, 22. 
Provinces, 33, 43. 
Prunus, 116. 
Pteris, 27. 

Pubescent, downy with short, soft hairs. 
Puberulent, minutely downy. 
Pulsatilla, 62. [needle. 

Punctate, dotted, as if punctured with a 
Purple-fringed Orchis, 238. 
Purslanes, ^. 

Pyriform, of the form of a pear. 
Pyrus, 112, 117. ^ 

Pyrola, 150. 
Pyxis, a pericarp with a lid, 43, 169. 

Q. 

Quadrangular, four-angled. 

Quality, the external traits, affecting the 

senses, 260. 
Quamash, 258. 
Quercus, 208. 



Quince, 117. 

Quiuate, growing in fives. 
Quiucuncial aestivation, 42, 106. 
Quinque (in composition), five. 

R. 

Raceme, flowers arranged as in Cur- 
rant, 41, 201. 
Rachis, the axis of an inflorescence, 

etc., 24, 41. 
Radiant Head, flowers all ligulate, 144. 
Radiate head, the outer row of flowers 

ligulate, 145. 
Radical, springing from the root, 47, 54. 
Radicle, the root end of the embryo. 
Radicle accumbent, 103. See Accumbent. 
Radicle incumbent, 100. See Incumbent. 
Radish, 103. 

Ramial, of a branch (ramus). 
Ranunculaceae, 59, 62. 
RaniincuUis, 48. 
Ranstead, 174. 
Rape-seed oil, 103. 
Rays (of the Composites), 142. 
Rays of an Umbel, 132. 
Rece{)tacle, where the florets of a Com- 
posite stand, 139. 
Receptacle chaffy, 145. 
Receptacle naked, 139. ^=^ 

Reclined, the leaf in bud bent over (UA 

forward. ^w 

Recurved, bent (not rolled) back- w^ 

ward, 31. ^*^ 

Red Maple, 192. 
Red Oak, 210. 

Reduplicate-valvate aestivation, 

the valves with recurved ed^e: 

Reflexed, bent back excessive 

ly, 52. 
Regma, the fruit of the Geranium, 

85. 
Regular, like parts similar, 

73. 
Reniform, kidney-shaped, 

73, 177. 
Repand toothed, 126. 
Reproductive organs, 

29. 
Resupinate, reversed; 

upside down, 72. 
Reticulate, netted, 47. 
Retuse, the apex broadly 

indented. 
Revolute, rolled backward. 
Rheum, 203. 
Rhizoma, Rhizome, 20. 
Rhombic, of the shape of 

a rhomb. 
Rhododendron, 158. 
Rhubarb, 203. 
Ribs, ridges on the fruit of the Umbel' 

worts, 135. 
Richardia, 232. 
Ricinus, 206. 

Ringent (corolla), the throat open. 
Robinia, 121. 
Robin's Plantain, 140. 
Rock Manle 188 



tion, „^^p 

dges. 1 r 

sive- ) -f 




306 



INDEX. 




Root, the base of the plant, 13, 107. 

Root, axial and inaxial, 50. 

Rootlets, divisions of the root, 13. 

Root-stock, the rhizome. 

Rosa, Rose, ll"^. 

Rosaceae, Roseworts, 115. 

Rostrate, beaked, with a beak. 

Rosaceous corolla, rose-like,viz., 
with 5, regular, quiucuncial 
petals. 

Rotate (corolla), mon- 
opetalous, wheel- 
shaped, 171. 

Rubus, IIG. 

Rudiment, the beginning of a thing. 

Rugous, wrinkled, 206. 

Rue Anemone, 60. 

Rue, Meadow, 60. 

Rumex, 203. 

Runner, a prostrate branch, 104. 

Riincinate, hooked backward, 143. 

Rush, 264. 

Russellia, 176. 

Rye, 279. 

S. 

Sabal Palmetto, 223. 

Safflower, 246. 

Saffron, 147, 246. 

Sage, 180. 

Sagittate, arrow-shaped, 98, 260. 

Sago Palm, Sagus, 228. 

Salsify, 147. 

Salver-shaped corolla, a flat 
border with a slender tube, 
like Phlox. [fruit, 191. A 

Samara, a simple, winged m 

Sanguinaria, 64. //0J 

Sapindacese, Sapindus, 195. |j^ 

Saponaria, 83. 

Sarracenia, 158. 

Scabrous, rough, 142, 275. 

Scales of the involucre, 138 

Scale-mosses, 27. 

Scammony, 188. 

Scarious, dry and translucent, 138, 244. 

Scape, a radical flower-stalk, 56. 

Scape-like, stem with diminished leaves. 

Scilla, 258. 

Scientific Names, Use of, 18. 

Scorpoid raceme, rolled inward, 
and unrolling as it blossoms. 

Scrophulariacese, 174. 

Sea-weeds, 27. 

Secund, turned to one side, 256. 

Sections, cuttings, 184. 

Sedges. 263. 

Seed, importance of, 33. 

Seed, Composition of, 186. 

Seed, Life of, 185. 

Self-heal, 179. 

Semi (in composition), half ; as 

Semicordate, half cordate. 

Senegal Gum, 125. 

Senna, 125. 

Sensitiveness, 121. 

Sensitive Plant, 123. 

Sensivera, Hemp, 258. 

SSpals, the leaves of the calyx, 31. 






Septicidal, opening be- 
tween the cells. 

Septif ^ragal , n a 1 v e s 
breaking away from 
the partitions, which 
remain in place, 185. 

Septum, a partition. 

Sequoya, 221. 

Senceous, silky. 

Serotinous, occurring late in the season 

Serrate, saw-edged, 104. 

Serrulate, finely saw-toothed, 14, 171. 

Sessile (sitting), having no 
petiole or foot-stalk, 37. 

Seta, plu. setae (bristles), 
perianth of the Sedges, 

Shadberry, 116. [270. 

Sheath, the petiole of the 
Grasses, 271. 

Sheathing petiole, 132. 

Sheep Poison, 157. 

Sheep Sorrel, 203. [274. 

Shepherd's Purse, 98, 177, 

Shooting Star, 161. 

Showy Orchis, 234. 

Shrub, a small (6-20 ft.), woody plant. 

SUene, 83. 

Silicle, Silique (sil-eke), 
100, 101. 

Silk Grass, 195. 

Silver grain, the medul- 
lary rays, 107. 

Simple, of one piece, not 
compound, 13. 

Sinuate, margin with round- 
ed lobes and sinuses. 

Siphonia, 207. 

Sisymbrium, 185. 

SDver-leaved Maple, 192. 

Sleep of plants, 31, 91, 92. 

Slips, cuttings which grow when severed. 

Snap Dragon, 173, 175. 

Snow Drop, 263. 

Snow Flake, 263. 

Soapberry, 195. 

Soap worts, 83, 195. 

Social Flowers, 135. 

Solidago, 147. 

Solitary inflorescence, 31. 

Solvent trunk or axis, 107. 

Sorrel worts, 203. 

Sorosis, fruit compounded of an inflores- 
cence, as Pineapple. 

Sorus, pi. sori, fniit-dots of Ferns, 22. 

Spadix, a spike with a fleshy rachis, 

Spanish Chestnut. 213. [231. 

Spathe, the bract (colored) sheathing 
a spadix, 231. 

Spatnlate, form of a surgeon's spatula. 

Spearmint, 182. 

Species, 18. 

Specific Characters, 179. 

Speedwell, 170. 

Spike, the flowers sessile on the ra- ii 
chis. ^5 

Spikelets, the peculiar clusters in the ^ 
Grasses, 272. I ^ 

Spike, Oil of. 182. • * 

Spines, woody thorns, 121. 




[128. 



INDEX. 



307 



Spiral arrangement of leaves, 193. 
Si>iial vesselis or cells, 18U, 225. 

Spirea, 117. 

Si)oiej;, Lhe seed of the Cry i)t ogams, 14, 22. 

Sporangia, the vessels coiiiaiiinig spores. 

Spotted Chimaphila, 154. [22. 

Sprekellia, 2G3. 

Spring Beauty, 39. 

Spruce, 218. 

Spur, a floral appendage, or nec- 
tary, 97, 235. Columbiue. 

Spurge, Spotted, 20G. 

Spiirgeworts, 206. 

Squills, 258. 

Squirtmg Cucumber, 95. 

Stamens, 32. 

Staminate flower, 137. 

Standard, or bamier, 118. 

Stapelia, 199. 

Staphylea, 195. 

Star Grass, 258. 

Star of Bethlehem, 258. 

Stellaria, 80. 

Stem, the ascending axis. 

Sterile flower, not fruitful, 137, 191. 

Stigma discoid — stellate. 

Stigma plumous, as in 
(passes. 

Stigma, 32. 

Stigmatic, partaking of 
the stigma. 

Stings, hollow, poisonous hairs, 104. 

Stipe, the stalk of the ovary, 21. 

Stipels, the stipules of the leaflets, 117. 

Stipitate, on a stipe. ^ 

Stipules, small leaves at base of the nv\ 
petiole, always in pairs, 75. \$^) 

Stolon, a runner. ^^^ 

Stolonif erous, producing stolons, 137. ^^ 

Storksbill, 87. 

Stoma, mouth (of a sporangc), 14. 

Stomata, mouths in the cuticle of leaves. 

Strawberry, 104. 

Strict, straight and erect. 

Striped Maple, 192. 

Strobile, fruit of the i^ines ; a cone. 

Struggle for existence, 14G. 

Style, the middle part of the pistil, 32. 

Siib (in composition), under ; in a less 
degree. 

S'lbkingdoms, 22. 

Subulate, awl-shaped, 17. 

Succulent, very juicy and cellular. 

Suffriiticous, partly shrubby {frutex, a 
shrub). 1.54. 

Superior (ovary), ovary 
free. 

Superior (calyx), calyx ,^^«, 
adherent. 

Su'zar Maple, 188. 

Sundew, 104. IGl. 

Sunflower, 145. 147. 

Supervolute pestiA^i^^ion, 183. 

Suppression. 194. 209. 

Suspended ovule, growinq^ 
from the top of the cell.' 

Sutural (dehiscence), open- 
ins: at the sutures. 

Suture (sute-yur), 66, 118. 





[246. 



Swamp Maple, 192.— Milkweed, 195. 

Sweet Alyssum, 103.— Fla^, 233.— Pea, 117. 
—Vernal Grass, 276.— Violet, 75.— Wil- 
liam, 83. 

Symmetrical, of the same number. 

Syn (in composition), together. _j~ 

Syngenecious, stamens united by their ^Jr 
anthers, as in the Composites. M 

Synonym, 103. # 

Sysirinchium, 244. " 

T. 

Tagetes, 147. 

Tamarind, 125. 

Tannic acid, 223. 

Tapioca, 207. 

Tap root. See Axial root. 

Taraxacum, 144. 

Tawny, fuhous, dull yellowish brown. 

Tea-berry, 147. [seed,'' 111. 

Tegmen, ''inner layer of the coating of a 

Tendril, an appendage for climb- 
Teratology, 82. [ing, 119. 

Terete (stem), evenly rounded, 
cylindric, 13. 

Terminal, placed at the summit or ' 
apex, 14. 

Ternate (leaves, or leaflets), in threes, 47, 

Testa, the outer coat of a seed, 33. 

Tet-ra-djTi-a-mous, 4 stamens 
longer than the other 2, 100. 

Thalictrum, 59. 

Thallus, the cellular body of a 
Lichen, etc., bearing the fruc- 
tificaiion. 

Thimble-berry, 116. 

Thistle, 147. 

Thorns. See Spines, 114, 121. 

Throat, orifice of a monopetalous corolla. 

Thyrse, a dense panicle, as in Lilac Horse 

Tigrldia. 246. [Chestnut. 

Toad Flax, 173. 

Tolu gum, 125. [hairs, 110. 

Tomentous, with short, dense, woolly 

Tonga Bean, 125. 

Toothroot Cress, 101. 

Top-shaped, inversely conical. 

Torrey, Dr. John, 2G5. 

Torus, the basis of a flower, 31. 

Trag'acanth, 125. 

TragopogoUj 147. 

Tree, 107. 

Tri (in composition), three ; as 

Triandrous, having 3 stamens. 

Tric'olor (three-colored), 75. 

Trientalis, 165. 

Trifid, cut deeply in 3 parts. 

Trifoliolate. with 3 leaflets. 

Tnlhum, 246. 

Trilliaceae, 251. 

Tnl-o-bate, having 3 lobes. 

Trlm-e-rous, 3-part- 
ed. 

Tripinnate, thrice 
pinnate. 

Triquetrous, three- 
angled, equitant aestiva- 
tion, 260. 

Tri-ter-nate, thrice ternate, 58. ' 





308 



IIS^DEX. 



(^ 





Tri-t6nia, 246. 

Tropaeolura, 97. 

Tropical vegetation, Luxuri- 
ance of, 146. 

Trophyworts, 97. 

Truncate, cut square off, 180. 

Trunk, the stem of a tree, 
107. 

Tr> ma, a bony fruit, like the 
Hickory nut. 

Tuber, a thickened, under- 
ground stem, as a potato. 

Tiiberculate, covered with 
warts (tubercles). 

Tuberose (Tu-ber-ose), 263. 

Tubular corolla, 143. 

Tiile, 270. 

Tulip, 35, 258. 

Tumid, swelled or inflated. 

Tunicated (bulb), with the layers entire, 

Turnip, 103. [34. 

Turpentine, 223. 

u. 

Umbel. Umbellet, 59, 132. 

Umbellate, bearing um- 
bels. 

Umbelliferae, 136, 184. 

Unarmed, without stings, 
thorns, etc. 

Under shrub, a low shrub. 

Undulate, wavy. 

Unguiculate (petal), having a claw (or 
petiole), 97. 

Uni (in composition), one; as 

Uni-valved, with one valve. ^l 

Unsymmetrical, 100. ^^i 

Urceolate, urn-shaped, 149. W"^ j 

Utricle, a fruit wilh one seed V§W 
loose in the thin shell. r^ 

Uva-ursi, 158. 

Uvularia, 252. 

V. 

Vaccinium, 148, 158. 

Vaginate (petiole), sheathing. 

Valvate, opening by or liks 
valves, 43. 

Valvate aestivation, the pieces 
meeting edi^e to edge. 

Valves, the pieces of a capsule, 
legume, etc. 

Vanilla, 240. 

Varieties, 36. 

Vascular tissue, composed of vessels and 
tubes rather than cells ; as the Flower- 
ing Plants generally. 

Vaulted, arched above, as the upper lip of 
some Labiates. 

Vegetative Organs, 29. 

Veins, Veinlets, Veinulets, 21. [22. 

Venation, the arrangement of the vems, 

Ventral, in front, opposite the axis. 

Venus's Fly Trap, 160. 



O 




Vernal, in or pertaining to the Spring. 
Vernation, arrangement of the leaves in 

the bud, 24. 
Veronica, 170. 
Versatile (anther), 85, 128. 
Vertical, parallel with the 

axis, or up and down. 
Verticils, whorls, 179, 

193. 
Ver-tic'-il-late, arranged 

in verticils, 154, 165. 
Vespei-tine, appearing 

in the evening. 
Vexillary (aestivation), like that 

of the Pea, 118. 
Vexillum, the banner, 118. 
Villous, with long, weak hairs, 

102. 
Vine, a weak, slender stem, usually 

climbing. 
Violaceae, Violetworts, 76. 
Violet, Viola, 72, 115. 
Viscid, viscous, sticky. 
Vitality of seeds, 185. 
Vitta, pi. Vittae, the oil-tubeo in the fruit 

of the Umbelworts, 135. 

W. 

Wake Robin, 249. 

Wall Flower, 103. 

Water Lily, 91. 

Watsdnia, 246. 

Wax Plant, 199. 

Wedge-shaped, tapering to the base 

cuneiform. 
Weymouth Pine, 217. 
Whistle Wood, 192. 
White Maple, 192. 
White Oak, 207. 
White Pine, 214. 

Whorl, a circle of similar organs, 154< 
Whorled, see VerticiUate. 
W^hortleberry, 158. 
Wild Oats, 251. 
Willow, 104. 
Willow Herb, 131. 
Wind Fertilization, 207, 216. 
Wing-margined, 174. 
Wintergreen, 147. 
Wintergreen, Chick, 164. 
Wistaria, 117, 125. 
Wood, the structure of, 107 
Wood Anemone, 60. 
Wood Sorrel, 89. 
Wormwood, 147. 



■f 



Y. 



Yellow Dock, 50. 
Yucca, 258. 



Z« 



Zauschneria, 131. 
Zinnia, 147. 



PART SECOND. 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



CHAPTER I. 



VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

368. The vegetable cell is the foundation of all 
plant structure, and when complete is a sac or bag-like 
body containing a semi-fluid substance 
called Protoplasm. The cell -wall in- 
creases by expansion. Spaces (vacuoles) 

appear among 

the particles 

of protoplasm, 

which are occli- 

pied by a watery ,,,^ ,,,tnre cdi of 

substance CalieCL nucleolus- &, cell-wall; 

-i-i ~f c, c, protoplasm mass sep- 

Ceil-Sap. in some arated from the cell.wall 

i r* j_-i Ti by alcohol. 

part of the cell 
a spot appears where the 
granules of Protoplasm are 
crowded together, forming a 
nucleus. The cell is now 
complete, and thus furnished 





466, Section of pith-cell of Taxodium ; a, 
nucleus ; 6, nucleolus ; c, e, protoplasm sac 
contracted toward the wall, from which it has 
been separated by reagents ; p, cell -sap in a 



large vacuole ; ?, w, channel between adjacent • nvce^i n 1 Qm O^T^^'h^(=^ nf (=^^^ 

cells; d, cell-wall ; e, 5, adjacent cell-walls ; -^^ "^^^ Olganibin CapaUie Oi eX- 



^, intercellular space. 



ercising vital functions, and 
possesses the ability to multiply itself or produce new 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 




cells. Ill the early stages of the plant's life,, the Proto- 
plasm is a naked mass, but it very soon surrounds 
itself with a wall, as in Figs. 465 
and 466. Inside the cell-wall it 
arranges itself into a great variety 
of forms. 

In Fig. 46 7, A shows new cells, 
with the protoplasm evenly distrib- 
uted, and nuclei forming, k, h. Fig. 
467, B, great changes have taken 
place, cell-sap has been introduced, 
and the protoplasm is much vacuo- 
lated, and appears either floating 
freely in the cell-sap, spread along the 
cell-wall, or otherwise aggregated. 
In Fig. 468, A, the protoplasm seems 
to be aggregating, and spots or vac- 
uoles are appearing in its midst. 
Fig. 467, B, the protoplasm is form- 
ing in globular masses around por- 
tions of sap. These little vesicles 
are frequently furnished with the 
green coloring matter of the plant. 
Fig. 468, (7, highly magnified cell, 
in which the protoplasm has re- 
treated from the cell-wall under 

. . 467, A, Very young cells from 

the action Ot weak sulphuric acid near the tip of the root of FntiHa- 

ria ; B, cells from a part a little 
and iodine. Wgher up in the root; .s s, s> sap; 

7c, X, y, nuclei and nucleoli form- 

369. Protoplasm is complex and ing-, ^, protoplasm. 
constantly changing in its constitution. It yields to 
chemical analysis materials similar to egg albumen, 
and is the living substance of the cell ; its appearance 
under the microscope is shown in Figs. 465-468. 




VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



The chemical substances that have been detected in Proloplasm are Oxygen^ 
Hydi^gen^ Carbon, Nitrogen, Svlphur, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Phosphorus, 
Cfiloi^ne, and frequently Silicon and Sodium. 

The relative proportions of these substances differ in different orders, and 
are not constant in the same plant. 



3 70. The wall of the cell 

(Fig. 466) is produced by 
some action of the proto- 
plasm. When first formed 
it is very thin, soft, and uni- 
form in thickness ; but as it 
grows older, it is thickened 
by additional coatings, or 
strata, upon the inner sur- 
face ; sometimes of uniform 
thickness, but more fre- 
quently in veins, rings, spots, 




468 



468, Forms of Protoplasm ; J. and B, cells 
... n . ±.^ ji from the stalk of Indian Corn : C, from a tuber 

or ridges, lOrmmg tne lOUn- ofJemsalem Artichoke after action of iodine and 
. . sulphuric acid; 7i, cell-wall; A;, nucleus; 6, nu- 

dation for the tissues and cieoius; p, protoplasm, 
vessels of plants hereafter to be considered. 

371. Cellulose is the substance of which the cell- 
wall is formed. It yields to the chemist the same ele- 
ments that are found in starch, whose formula is 
Cg Hjo O5 ; besides these, several other mineral sub- 
stances are present in minute quantities. 

872. Woody material, called lignin, is deposited or 
formed upon the walls of some cells, by which they 
are hardened and strengthened. The component parts 
of this substance are not accurately known ; there is 
reason to believe they vary in different plants, and 
even in different parts of the same plant. Mineral 
substances, principally silica and lime compounds, also 
thicken the cell-walls and increase their induration 
and strength. 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



373. Chlorophyl. — In the living cells of those 
parts of plants exposed to sunlight, grannies appear, 
resembling protoplasm grains in all respects except 
color. These minute bodies are green, and furnish the 
green color to leaves and all other green parts of 
plants ; the name applied to these granules is due to 
their color, and as the leaf is the most conspicuous 
green part of the plant, the term Chlorophyl (Leaf 
Green) has been applied to this green color. Some 
authors have called chlorophyl grains stained proto- 
plasm, viewing chlorophyl as the stain, and the 
chlorophyl granule as colored protoplasm (Figs. 466, 
467). 

3 74. Starch is a most important plant product, 
and is formed by the action of protoplasm and chloro- 
phyl under sunlight ; it is found sparingly in the 
leaf, and when more than enough to supply the plant's 
daily wants is produced, the surplus is stored up in 
some other part of the plant, as the tuber of the 
Potato, the grains of Wheat, and other cereals, in 
which form it is utilized for animal food. Its com- 
ponent parts are identical with those of cellulose. 
Forms of starch-grains are shown in 
Figs. 469-473. The form of starch- 
grains is very various, differing in dif- 
ferent plants, and 
///(^^ even in the same 
parts of the same 
472 plant. Fig. 473, 

469, Cells of Potato containing starch-grains. 470, Starch -grains a n ll P fo CI fWf^ 
from the Potato. 471, from the E. Indian Arrowroot. 472, Starch "^^7 ^7 ^7 ^^ ^^ i/7 "^^^ 
granules from W. Indian Arrowroot. Starch-graluS f rOm 

a grain of Indian Corn. Fig. 473, B, shows starch- 
grains from a grain of Wheat ; these are more nearly 





VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



uniform in shape and size 
and somewhat lens-shaped. 
875. Crystals of a great 
variety of shape are found 
in some of the cells of 
most plants of the higher 
orders ; the most simple of 
these forms are cubical or 
prismatic ; but they occur 
in almost every variety of 
polyhedral form. In some 
orders they appear in slen- 
der needle-shaped bodies 
called Raphides. They usu- 
ally occur, solitary or in 
masses, in the cell cavity ^ 
but are not unfrequently 
found in the ceU-toall 
(Figs. 474, 475). 

-r»T 1 I T , T marked a, h, c, etc., to q are also from the interior of 

Plant crystals are the 
residua of the materials 




473, A, is a cell from the endosperm of a grain of 
Indian Corn, crowded with starch-grains ; the grains 



■ain of corn. The grains marked Baxe from the 
interior of a grain of Wheat. 



used 




474, A, Beet cells with ^ 

stellate masses of crystals ; B, R, inner cells, with 
raphides escaping ; C, aleurone crystal. 



chemical combinations that have taken 
place in the cell under the 
action of sunlight, and are 
usually composed of lime 
carbonate or lime oxalate. 
Other calcic combinations 
are, however, frequently 
present. The difficulties at- 
tending the separating of 
plant crystals from their 
surroundings have thus far 
rendered it impossible in 



6 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 




^-v.'-A> 



^-i-^^^iy 






some cases to determine with accuracy their chemical 
constituents. 

376. Cell-sap is the watery fluid in the cell which 
suspends the food and working material taken into 
the cell from the air and the 

soil and the soluble substances 
which the plant produces, and 
is the medium by which food is 
conveyed throughout the plant's 
structure. All parts of the active 
cell are filled with water ; it con- 
stitutes a large part of the cellu- 
lose, and forms the greater part 
of the bulk of protoplasm. Sugar 
is a prominent sub- 
stance in the cell- 
sap, both cane and 
grape. Cane-sugar 

nVirklTnrlQ irj fTlf^ r»<=kllQ 475, ^, cross-section of oak-gall : cZ, sclerenchymatous cells ; 

clUULLnLLfe in iny Uenb ^ outside tissue, with oxalate crystals, e, inner tissue containing 
J? o /~i n starch and resin. B, forms of calcium oxalate crystals. 

of Sugar Cane, Sugar 

Maple, Beet, Sorghum, Indian Corn, and most of the 
higher plants ; while grape-sugar gives sweetness to 
grapes, cherries, figs, and gooseberries. In the poma- 
ceous and drupe fruits both kinds are present. For cell- 
sap in both large and small vacuoles, see Fig. 466, p; 
Fig. 467, B, s, s, s. 

377. New cells, to which the enlargement or growth 
of the plant is due, are formed in one of the three fol- 
lowing typical modes : 

378. i, Rejuvenescence. — In this method of pro- 
ducing new cells, the entire mass of the protoplasm is 
expelled from the old cell, and, when set free, sur- 
rounds itself with a wall, thus becoming a new cell. 





VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



379. ^, Conjugation. — New cells are also produced 
by the union of the protoplasm of two or more cells ; 
the contents of which having commingled, the com- 
bined mass incloses itself with a cellulose covering, 
and becomes a new cell. 

380. 3, Fission is the name applied to the mode of 
cell production by which two or more new cells are 
formed out of one. This is the usual mode, and may 
be treated under three heads. 

381. a^ Fissioiv Proper. — A young complete cell (Figs. 
465, 466) possesses the power to multiply. The most 
simple case of this process is the division of the cell 
into two equal, or nearly equal, parts. The protoplasm 
forms two nucleus-like spots ; a stricture then com- 
mences in the wall between the spots, and the cell 
seems to pinch itself into two. This process is shown 
in the fission of Bacterium cells (Figs. 511, 512). 

In most cases the process is accompanied by a 
stricture more or less prominent ; at the same time 
an equatorial septum appears between the nuclear 
spots, and divides the old cell into two nearly equal 
new cells (Fig. 476). In this case the stricture in the 
cell-wall is barely visible. The new cells round up and 
soon become sub-globular in form. 




476, Phases of a cell undergoing the process of fission ; a, complete cell with drops of cell«sap among 
the protoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus ; 6, same, with nucleus and nucleolus divided ; c, with stricture 
and wall forming across between the nuclei d, same, with the septum completed, and the fission accom- 
plished; two separate cells have been formed by dividing the old cell into two. 



8 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



The process of cell division depends first upon the nucleus which forms a 
spindle of radiating fibrils with an equatorial disk. A middle wall, or parti- 
tion, is formed at the disk, whereby two distinct ceUs are produced (477).— 
Madoskie's Elementary Botany. 





477 

477, No. 1, mature cell ; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 show the changes through which No. 1 passes preparatoi-y to 
the final act of fission ; seen completed in No. 9. 

'382. 6, Budding is another form of plant multipli- 
cation. In this mode the plant cell puts forth a pro- 
trusion which enlarges until it is about 
the size of the old cell, "vvhen a partition 
wall is thrown across at the juncture, 
making the new cell complete and inde- 
pendent. In Fig. 478 the process of bud- 
ding is shown in its several forms. 478, Yeast-piant, sac- 

charomyces cerivesiae, 

383. Cj Intra-cell Formation. — Under undergoing the process 

of budding. 

this head are treated those cases in which 
several aggregations appear within the cell and the 
entire mass of protoplasm separates into two, three, or 
more parts, each of which, either at the time the divi- 
sion is going on or soon after, becomes inclosed in a 
cellulose envelope, and speedily assumes a globular 
form, as an independent complete cell 



VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



In the preparation for cell division nucleus-like formations usually appear 
in the mother cell. The whole protoplasmic body breaks up into two, three, 
four, or more parts, and each quickly takes on a spher- 
ical form (Fig. '^IQ). — Sachs' Text-hook of Botany. 

All these modes of cell multiplica- 
tion and formation are subject to great 
variation ; each has a tendency to run 
into one of the others ; the last is espe- 
cially liable to vary as to number of 
daughter cells. 

384. The form of cells varies to 
suit the use for which they are in- 
tended and the amount and direction 
of the pressure to which they are sub- 
jected. The normal shape is globular or spheroidal 
when free from pressure (Fig. 480) ; when pressure 




479 
479, Showing cell forma- 
tion in Achlya — mother cell, 
showing a number of nuclei 
in the mass of protoplasm 
which is preparing to break 
up into a number of inde- 
pendent or daughter cells ; 
a, a, a, etc., nuclei. 





480, Form of cells in loose parenchyma. 481, Cross-section of parenchyma cells from stalk of Indian 
Corn (X550), showing form under slight pressure; ^w,^i/?, partition walls ; «, z, intercellular spaces. 

from surrounding cells is exerted, they be- 
come ellipsoidal, egg-shaped, prismatic, or 
polyhedral (Figs. 481,482). In the trunks 
and branches of trees and stems of herba- 
ceous plants the cells become elongated 
in the direction of growth (Fig. 467). 

385. The size of the cells in the soft 
tissue varies; the largest is about -^V of 




482 

482, Form of cells 
under greater pressure 
from all directions. 



10 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 




an inch in diameter. From this ceUs occur whose 
diameters range aU the way down to -g-oW of an inch 
in diameter. In the more sohd tissues they range 
from I to ^V of 0^1^ inch in length, and from y^Vo" to 
-50V0 ii^ their cross-sections. CeUs of the long staple 
cotton wool are from one to two inches in length. 

386. Spiral and annular cells are formed when 
rings, bands, or hoop-like processes 
appear on the inner surfaces of the 
walls ; in the spiral cell an uninter- 
rupted fibrous proceae extends the 
whole length of the cell in a spiral 
coil (Fio^. 483). The annular cell Yi^^ 4S3, spiral ceii fictn or- 

^ ' chid. 4S4, Annular cell from 

bands or hoop-like markings as though ^^^^^letoe. 

the spiral fiber had been interrupted at several points 

(Fig. 484). 

387. Dotted or pitted cells are pro- 
duced when the coatings on the inner sur- 
face of the cell wall are not uniform in 
thickness, leaving thin spots, or pits, which 
485, Dotted or ^^q vcioTQ ucarlv transparcut when viewed 

pitted cells from *^ ^ 

Elder pith. under the glass, than the more thickened 

parts of the wall; hence the name (Fig. 485). 

388. Reticulated cells are produced by 
coatings which are deposited or formed 
upon the inner surface of the cell-wall, 
where they at first appear in spots and 
lines, of different sizes and lengths (Fig. 486, Reticulated 

cell from the Mis- 

48 6). As the cell grows older, the markings tietoe. 
increase in length, and touching each other, form an 
irregular net-work. 

389. CoUenchyma cells are cubical, cylindrical, or 
irregular in form, whose walls are much thickened 





VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



11 



at the angles, while they are of ordinary thickness in 

other parts. These cells occur in 

most plants of the higher orders 

and in some ferns, and are found 

in the tissues just beneath the 

epidermis. 

390. Sclerenchyma cells, some- 
times called grit or stony cells, 
have hardened walls produced 
by deposition upon them of the 
horny substance found in the 
pits of the Cherry, Peach, and 

487, CoUenchyma cells from leaf stalk 
Plum and the shells of nuts; of Begonia; e, epidermal cells;c?,cdllen- 

chyma cells; c/i?, chlorophyll grains; », 
sometimes found in the fleshy thickened angles where these cells meet; 

p, part of parenchyma cell. 

parts of the Pear. 






488, Sclerenchyma cells ; PP, canals connecting the cavity t with the outer surface or adjacent cells; 
1, 2, 3, thickened layers; p, in B, cell walls. 

391. Epidermal cells appear in plate-like expan- 
sions forming the outer coverings of leaves and young 
bark ; their edges are in contact ; their boundaries are 
either straight or sinuous ; and they are elongated in 
the direction of growth. The edges are so firmly knit 
together that the entire covering of one side of a leaf 
may be removed intact. The epidermis at first is usu- 
ally formed of a single layer, but later it is sometimes 
made up of two or more layers (Pig. 489). 



12 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



iQ.« 



392. Hairs are outgrowths of epidermal cells, and 
are composed usually of greatly elongated single cells 
(Figs. 490-49 7), which fre- 
quently branch ; others are 
made up of a number of cells. 
Hairs take on a number of 
forms by branching. 

Scales are another form of 
epidermal outgrowth, and ap- 
pear in the form of disks. 




489, Is a vertical section of aleaf of Bank- 

sia ; a, a, show two layers of cells in the epi- 

, ^ . dermis ; c, hairs found in little cavities on the 

Bristles are hair-like proc- under side of the leaf. 



esses, the walls of whose cells are hardened. 

Prickles are outgrowths of a still firmer character. 




490, Rootlet ofMadder, showin*? cells expanded into hair-like processes. 491, Section of a glandular 
hair of Fraxinella. 492, Hair of Brionia, composed of several cells. 493, Hair surmounted by a gland, An- 
tirrhinum majus. 494, Stinging hair of Urtica dioica. 495, Jointed hair from a stamen of Tradescandia. 
493, Star-shaped hair from the petiole of Nuphar advena (X200). 497, Branched hair of Arabis. 

393. Glands are processes consisting of a single 
cell or an aggregation of cells, situated a little above, 
at, or just beneath the surface, the function of which 
is to secrete and discharge peculiar substances, as oils, 
nectar, etc. Glands sometimes terminate in a hair-like 
process (Fig. 493). 

Stinging hairs are usually setaceous and sufficiently 
rigid to perforate animal tissue ; having entered, the 



VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



13 



apex breaks off and the contained irritating liquid is 
discharged into the wound, producing the sting. 

394. Stoma-cells are epidermal. Stomata are 
mouths or openings into the intercellular spaces of the 
leaves and young bark, sometimes called breathing- 
pores. They are guarded each by two half-moon- 
shaped cells whose concave sides lie next each other. 
When filled with liquids, their concavity increases, leav- 
ing an orifice between the guard cells, for the passage 
of air and moisture. When the atmosphere is dry and 
the plant can not afford to part with its fluids, the 
guard cells lose their concavity, the sides become 
straight, the orifice closes, and evaporation is arrested. 
The number of these openings is very great, many 
thousands appearing in a square inch of surface (Figs. 
498-500, 522-624). 




500 498 

^8, Cells of epidermis with a stoma from leaf of Helleborus foetidus. 499, Vertical section of a stoma of 
Narcissus; a, cuticle. 500, Epidermis cells with stomata of Tradescantia Virginica— «, a, guard cells. 

395. Cork cells are cubical or tabular, and fit closely 
together ; in the outer layers they are dead and empty, 
and constitute the outer bark layers of old trees, prom-^ 
inent in the Quercus suber (Cork Oak). 



14 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



CHAPTER II. 



TISSUES. 

396. Parenchyma is a tissue composed of short 
cells, usually with intercellular spaces among them, 
and is the foundation of vegetable structure. All cells 
may be regarded as modifications of parenchyma ; the 
various markings and forms being due to alterations 
which go on by degrees to fit them for the functions 
they are to exercise in the tissues of the plant. 

397. In the lower plants the entire individual con- 
sists of parenchyma, and it is found throughout the 
structure of the higher 
plants, mingled and in- 
terlaced with other tis- 
sue, especially in their 
green parts. Fig. 501 
is a microscopic view 
of a thin slice of the 
rhizome of Sanguina- 
via Canadensis, mag- 
nified to 100 diame- 
ters; the cells are un- 
der pressure, and vary 
greatly in size and 
shape, and have a bun- 
dle of wood-cells imbedded among them. For forms 
and size of cells see No. 385 ; also see Pigs. 480-482. 

398. Prosenchyma is the generic name of the 
elongated, pointed cells or fibers without intercellular 
spaces that form plant tissues. 




501, Section of the rhizome of Bloodroot ; a, a, a bundle of 
wood-cells. 



TISSUES. 



15 




899. Woody tissue is made up of slender, lengthened, 
lignified cells, which taper at the 
ends, and are found in woody 
plants overlapping each other, 
and packed in bundles (Figs. 
502-504). 

400. Bast tissue is composed 
of elongated cells, with thickened 
walls, not sufficiently lignified to 
be hard; they are flexible and 
tough, and abound in the inner 

iiPn-iT-i J -1 502, Wood-cells. 503, Cross-section 

bark of dicotyledonous trees and of same. 504, wood-ceiis in combina- 

1 ^ tion forming a fibro- vascular bundle. 

shrubs. 

401. Disk-bearing tissue is constituted of length- 
ened cells, which have pits or 
lens-shaped markings, found in 
the Pine and other gymnosperms 
(Fig. 505). 

402. Vessels or ducts are 
tubes which are filled with air or 
vapor, thus reducing the specific 
gravity of the wood. In the for- 
mation of these tubes, elongated 
cells arrange themselves end to 
end and become anastomosed ;^ 
the walls in the ends of the cells 
are ruptured or disappear, and 
variously shaped vessels are pro- 
duced. 

403. Spiral vessels are con- 
505, Lengthwise section of (Scotch structed by thc unlou of Spiral 

Pine) Pinus Sylvestris, showing disk- , . 

bearingti8sne;c6, Cambium wood-cells; CCllS, lu thC manner dCSCrlbed lU 
a, b, c, etc., older cells ; t, f, t", bordered 

pitiiff*, large pits (x225).-;Sc«A(r. the last article (Fig. 506). 




16 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



404. Annular or ringed ducts are produced by the 

union end to end of annular cells, the walls of which 
are held apart by rings or hoop-like 
thickenings on the inner surface (Fig. 
507, A, B, 0). 

405. Scalariform ducts, character- 
istic of ferns, are formed when the an- 
nular vessels are compressed into pris- 
matic forms whose sides present the 
appearance of ladders (Fig. 507, D), 

406. Dotted or pitted ducts are 
formed of dotted or pitted cells, as in 
the case of annular cells (Fig. 507, JE). 

407. Sieve ducts or tubes are 
formed of colorless elongated cells, of 
large diameter ; the walls are soft and 
very much enlarged and thickened at the joints ; at 
the junctions finely perforated plates appear (Fig. 




50(j 



506, A, spiral vessels from a 
Melon petiole ; B, spiral vessel 
from Mamillaria. 



a 



50.' 





ABC D 

607, A, annular vesfefsl from leaf-stalk of Melon ; B, duct, part spiral and part annular, from Melon ; C, 
part annular and pat.< /eticulated duct from Melon; D, annular and reticulated ducts pressed into pris- 
matic shape, forming scalariform vessels, from Tree-fern ; E, pitted or dotted duct, formed by the union 
of pitted cells from melon-stalk. 

508, A) ] also on the internodes are spots of fine per- 
forations and slits (Fig. 508, B), These spots of per- 
forations are like a strainer or sieve; hence the name... 



TISSUES. 



17 





108, A, Cross-section of Pumpkin vine (x550); si, walls or septa at the union of cells, developing into 
sieve plates; c, c, cambium cells ; p, p, parenchyma. B, Lengthwise section, showing the enlarged joints ; 
g, an edge view of sieve septa; si, sieve spot on the side-wall. 



408. Latex vessels are 
produced by the union end 
to end of latex cells; by 
anastomosing and branch- 
ing a reticulated tissue is 
formed which conveys the 
milky juices of the plant 
through its structure. In 
the tissues of the Ficus 
elastica, Euphorbia and the 
railk weeds, besides the 
Latex tubes, numerous 
closed cells are present, 
charged with the same 
milky fluids as the ducts 
(Fig. 509). The free cells 
frequently elongate, and 
sometimes branch. 

These vessels are ar- 
ranged in the stem as rep- 
resented in Fig. 510. 




509, A, Latex vessels forming an irregular net- 
work in a transverse section of the bark of Scorzonera 
Hispanic a. B, A fragment of a latex vessel more 
highly magnified. — Sachs. 



18 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

^ . ^, , . ^ Wh' t h h I 




610, Ay Lengthwise section of the Castor-oil plant. Beginning with the hark, r, cortical cells; gs, bun- 
dle sheath; 6, bast fibers; j3, bast pai*enchyma; c, cambium; the cells between c and p become sieve tubes; 
<, t, pitted vessels ; g, shows an absorbed septum ; h'\ A", annular ducts; 7i, A, pitted vessels, resembling 
annular ducts; ?, vessel apparently made up partly of annular cells and partly of reticulated cells; s, spiral 
vessel, of very small caliber, next to the pith; »', larger calibered spiral vessel; w, pith-cells. 



^f^ St 




510, By Lengthwise slice of wood from an Ailanthus glandulosa, highly magnified; g, g, pitted ducts; p,p, 
wood parenchyma; ?/", woody fibers; st, sty cross-section of medullary rays; <, annular ducts. 



SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 19 



CHAPTER III.. 

SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 

409. The brief account of the cell and its modifica- 
tions into tissues and ducts, prepares for the considera- 
tion of the manner in which these organs are arranged 
in the structure of plants. 

In the lowest groups of plant life the individual is 
either a single cell or an assemblage of soft cells, with- 
out special order of arrangement. 

410. Unicellular plants. — The most simple forms 
of plant life are single minute cells, called Bacteria, 
the smallest objects that are 
known to exercise vital func- 
tions ; they are so small that 
50,000 laid on a line side 
by side would occupy a 
space less than an inch in 
length. The typical form 
is globular, appearing under 

the microscope as a minute 511, l, Sarcme; 2, Bacterium; 3, Vlbro; 4, Spim- 

granule or dot, as No. 1 in ^''°'* 

Fig. 511; they are, however, frequently elongated, and 
appear in an oval form, as in No. 2 ; again, they take 
on the form of a fine line, straight, curved, or crooked, 
as in No. 3 ; another time they are spiral, as in No. 4. 
These minute cells are stored with protoplasm, and 
swim in fluids from which they obtain nourishment. 
They increase by fission, and multiply with marvelous 
rapidity. They are found in the watery fiuids of both 
animals and plants. 




30 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



Some Bacteria separate into spores ; and diseases in men as well as plants 
are believed to be due to the presence of Bacteria. They are parasitical or 
saprophytic, feeding on living or decaying matter ; they are the agents of de- 
cay and revel upon the ruins they produce. As they multiply by fission, they 
are called Schizomycetes (o-xt^w, to divide, and mv*"??, a fungus). (Fig. 512.) 



/ 




\ 




,^\ 


^ 


_**" if O^Jf 1 


\^/ <^ 


e 


if 


^-X'^^. 


\ 


%<^ oo 


/ ^ 








oooo 










I 




S 


', 






o»"» 


,^«^ 














,^0:i^ 


"»ce. 


..o,.*"' 





< 






OQQD 



512 

512, A, Bacterium Termo, magnified to 1,000 diameters, undergoing the process of fission. B, Same, 
magnified to 3,000 diameters, in which the process of fission is nearly completed. C, Micrococci (xl,OCO) 
undergoing fission, the new cells arranging themselves in curved and crooked lines or in irregular gnroups. 
2>, Sarcina Ventriculi (x 1,000) undergoing fission in two directions, the new cells arranging themselves in 
square groups. 

411. The Yeast Plant (Fig. 513) is one of the most 
interesting of the unicellular organisms ; it is the agent 
of fermentation, and plays an important 
part in bread-making, where it disinte- 
grates the starch-grains in the flour, and 
thereby liberates carbon dioxide ; the gas 
set free struggles to find its way through 



513 
613. Yeast Plant, Sac- 

the dough, becomes entangled, forms cav- charomyces cerevisiae. 
ities in the mass, and makes it sponge-like or light, 

412. The next grade above the plant which is a 
single cell is one composed of a mass of cells without 
a special axis of growth ; as some of the Sea-weeds, 
which are mere masses of flat cells arranged in two 
layers, forming irregular leaf-like expansions. 




SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 



21 




514 



9 8 



413. This book is intended to consider the higher 
plants only ; we shall therefore now proceed to describe 
the manner in which the modi- 
fied cells and vessels are ar- 
ranged in the higher organized 
plant structures. 

414. Exogenous or Dicotyle- 
donous structure. — Growth in the 
most highly organized plants is 
best illustrated by the examina- 
tion of a tree or shoot of Oak, 
Maple, Apple, or Cherry at the end of the first year of 

its life. A cross-section- of such a 
scion presents a circle of pith in 
the center, around which are con- 
centric circular rings, the inner one 
wood, the outer ones bark. In the 
figure (514), a, the pith ; 6, the 
wood ; c, the bark. On the inner 
edge of the wood is a ring of spi- 
ral vessels, d, which is called the 
medullary or pith sheath. The pith 
is made up of parenchyma and 
extends between the wedges of 
wood in flat cells connecting the 
pith with the bark (1, 2, 3, Fig. 

515, 4, cross-section of the stem of 514), fOTmlug the SllVCr gTalu 
a Maple at the end of the first season's . >^t t hit ^ ii 

growth: 1, edge of the pith; 2, spiral sceu lu Oak auQ Maple planks, 

vessels : 3, wood region made up of . , • j t • i j • r> 

woody fiber and dotted ducts and other Or m a lOUgltUUmal SCCtlOU Ot 

vessels; 4, cambium layer made up of , t ji i • j. j 

new cells; 5, liber: 6, larger cells and thOSe aUQ OthCr CablUet WOOQS 

vessels of the liber or bast region ; 7, _ , 

cellular envelope or green bark; 8, WhOU Spllt, 

corky envelope or outer bark ; 9, the , 

skin, or epidermis. £, shows corre- 415. The WOOd IS Uiade Up of 
sponding vessels and tissues in a ver- 
tical section of the same plant, woody fiber interspersed with tis- 




23 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



sues composed of the cells, vessels, and ducts which 
have already been described. 

416. The bark at the end of the first year's growth 
is made up of three layers : the one next the wood, 
called bast, is composed of pa- 
renchyma, sieve vessels, and li- 
ber-cells ; on account of the pre- 
dominance of the hast ducts in 
this layer, it has been called the 
Ijast region (Figs. 508, 516). 
The liber-cells are long, strong 
fibers, and in some plants are 
very tenacious and flexible, form- 
ing the material in Hemp^ Flax, 
and other textile substances util- 
ized in manufacture of cordage 
and fabrics. 

Next to the bast is the green 
cellular layer, called phellogen, 
because by its dividing, it pro- 
duces outside of it cork, which 
increases by the addition of new 
material to the inner surface. 
The cork is usually of a brown 
or ashy color, sometimes white 
or striped ; in old trees it is 
cracked and broken by the 
growth of the wood, and falls 
off in scales or strips, as in the 
shag-bark Hickory ; in the Paper 
Birch it peels off in sheets resembling paper. Upon 
some trees it develops into thick porous layers, and 
upon the Cork Oak furnishes the cork of commerce. 




616, Is a photograph from nature of a 
layer of bast-fibrous bundles found in the 
secondaiy bark of the stem of an old Carica 
papaya. These bundles, originating in the 
cambium, are arranged in ten to twenty i 
layers one over another like the leaves in / 
a book. These fibers by anastamosing 
have formed an irregular net-work with 
elongated sinuous meshes. These meshes 
during their life were filled with soft sec- 
ondary cortical tissue which has been re- 
moved by maceration. 



SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 23 

417. During the season of activity the young stem 
continues to increase both in height and diameter by 
the multiphcation of cells and the formation of the 
various tissues required by the conditions of growth 
(Chap. III., Introduction) ; hence a mass of infant cells 
is constantly present between the wood and the bark, 
and in the buds of the stem and branches. 

On the approach of winter the leaves fall, the ter- 
minal buds refuse to expand, and the entire process 
of growth is arrested, until the revivifying warmth of 
the succeeding spring unlocks the imprisoned forces 
that have slept during the frosty season, when the 
fluids from the earth begin to flow upward and 
outward through the cell walls of the last year's 
wood to the bark and the leaves ; the young cambium 
cells which have slumbered through the winter are 
flUed with sap and commence another season of 
growth ; the buds burst into leaves or flowers, and the 
greatest activity succeeds the late period of rest. The 
young cells multiply and increase in size, most of 
them being changed into woody fiber and ducts, com- 
mencing a new layer of wood on 
the outside of the last layer, and 
a new layer of bast on the inside 
of the old one ; also a new layer 
on the inside of the cortex layer. 
In this way the work goes on, and 
layer after layer is added for each 
period of activity, which in regions ^^^^^^^ 517 

of severe frost occurs yearly (Fig. 517, is a photograph of a cross- 

^ ^ f-s, TTT'j.1 'XT • T 1 section of an oak-stem twenty-five 

517). Within the tropics and all years oM, showing the annual circular 

rings, the whole surrounded by the 

regions of no frost, periods of rest rough bark. 

and activity may occur more frequently than once a 




24 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

year, and therefore the number of rings on a cross- 
section does not always indicate the number of years 
in the age of a tree. But in the higher latitudes a 
new tube of wood and one of the inner bark is formed 
yearly. 

That more than one ring of wood may, and sometimes does, form in one 
season of growth, even in regions of severe frost, has been established by 
observation. 

418. Sap wood is a name applied to the new wood, 
and usually includes several of the last formed layers ; 
it is so called because the fluids in moving upward from 
the ground pass through its vessels. In most trees it 
is of a lighter color than the older layers, and on that 
account was called by early botanists Lignum album, 
white wood ; now called Alburnum, or white wood. 

419. Heart wood is that part of the trunk or stem 
near the center or heart, and for that reason called 
Heart wood. It is usually more dense, and therefore 
called Duramen, hard wood. In some species it is 
much darker than the sap wood, hence former botan- 
ists called it Lignum nigrum, Black wood. In some 
plants, as the Black Walnut, the Duramen is very 
dark, while the Heart wood of the Maple is not much 
darker than the sap wood, though they may grow side 
by side and draw from the earth the same materials. 
It would seem, therefore, that chemical changes take 
place either in the plant's structure or upon the ma- 
terials taken in to suit the necessities of each case. 

On account of the mode of growth in Dicotyledonous stems, the name 
Exogens, or outside growers, was formerly applied to plants of this structure. 
They are characterized by two or more seed leaves in their embryo, and pro- 
duce netted-veined leaves. See Dicotyledons, pages 163-166. 

Nearly all the trees and shrubs of the temperate 
zones are Exogens or Dicotyledonous plants, well 



SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 



25 



represented by the Oak, 
Pine, Elm, Maple, Apple, 
Pear, Peach, Cherry, and 
other fruit and timber 
trees. 

420. The root is that 
part of the plant that 
grows downward into the 
ground and holds the 
whole firmly in the soil. 
Its tissues correspond with 
those of the stem to which 
it belongs, and it increases 
in diameter by additional 
layers, one for each period 
of activity, succeeded by 
a rest. The extremity of 

the root and that of each 618,a, shrub; &, Fir; c,Oak-tree. 

of its branches is encased by a layer of older cells, 

called the root cap, a con- 
trivance which seems to 
be intended to protect the 
tender infant cells just be- 
hind it, which during the 
growing season are increas- 
ing and multiplying, to ex- 
tend the root and rootlets 
in all directions in the soil. 
The parts of the root and 
rootlets near the growing 
points absorb the fluids 
which are presented to 

619, Rootlet of Maple with hairs or fibrillae; s, root 

cap. 620, Duckmeat, showing the root cap s, them lu the SOll, but thls 




519 



520 




36 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

absorption is largely helped by root hairs, which clothe 
the root and rootlets, as seen in Figs. 519, 520. Fig. 
519, root of a Maple sprinkled with hair-like processes 
or minute fibrillse ; these are usually each a single 
elongated cell, and appear on the newer parts of the 
root, a little distance from the growing point, dying or 
becoming useless on the older parts. The Root, as to 
use, form, etc., is treated in another place (see Chapter 
XIII., Structural Botany). 



CHAPTER IV. 

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE. 

421. The woody fibers and vessels that make up 
the stems of Palms, Indian Corn, Bamboo, Sugar Cane, 
and all grass-like plants, are not arranged as they are 
in the Oak, Maple, and Apple, already described. A 
cross-section of a Palm stem presents 
a mass of pith, dotted all over with 
sections of woody fiber and vessels 
without any apparent order of ar- 
rangement (521) ; the whole inclosed 
in a circular ring or rind, in which 
the fibro'vascular bundles are smaller 521, cross-sectfon of the trunk 
than in the body of the stem. In a ofaPaim. 

longitudinal section the threads of woody fibey may 
be traced from the bases of the leaves in a curve out 
toward the center, and in a recurve back again to the 
side whence they started (Pigs. 522, 528). In stems 
like the Indian Corn and the Grasses, with long spaces 
between the leaves and closed nodes, the fibro-vascular 
threads extend in straight lines from node to node, 




MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE. 



37 




522 523 

622, Vertical section of a Palm stem, showing 
conrse and direction of fibers. 523, Theoretical 



where they unite with those of the next internode, 

The rind of the Corn 

stalk, Bamboo, Reed, etc., 

is smooth and flinty, due 

to the deposition of silica 

on the walls of the cells 

that compose it. This mode 

of growth is well shown in 

the Palms of tropical and 

sub-tropical regions, as the 

Palmetto of the CarolinaS, ^^^"^ ^^^^® direction of fibers in a vertical section of 

' a Palm stem ; a, a, bases of leaves, showing direc* 

the Cocoanut Palm, many tion of fiber growth. 

thousands of which have been planted on the coast of 

Florida. 

422. The Palm, which is the type of the mono- 

cotyledonous division of the 
vegetable kingdom, reaches 
perfection only in tropical or 
sub-tropical regions. There 
some of the members of 
this great division tower to 
the height of one hundred 
and fifty feet, straight, un- 
branched cylindrical col- 
ums, crowned with a mass 
of green foliage, presenting 
to the eye magnificent ob- 
jects of the picturesque and 
beautiful. The Palm is* one 
of the most important or- 
naments in planted grounds 
in tropical countries, occu- 
524, Palm, Agave, etc, pyiiig a bclt all arouud the 




28 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

globe of about thirty-five degrees both sides of the 
Equator. It flourishes in the bare sands of the sea- 
coast, skirts arid plains, beautifies the oasis of the 
desert, and inhabits the murky bottoms of southern 
swamps and low islands of Southern Asia and tropical 
America. These plants are of vast utility, producing 
food and many domestic and economic products. 

There are certain noticeable things in the mode of 
monocotyledonous growth. The stem has no proper 
bark, does not increase in diameter after it is perfectly 
formed, and, with few exceptions, consists of an un- 
branched cylindrical column, made up of pith inter- 
mingled with fibro-vascular threads, generally without 
any order of arrangement, the whole inclosed in a 
rind or false bark (521-524), well illustrated in a 
cross-section of a stalk of Indian Corn. There are a 
few plants that seem to be connecting links between 
these two modes of growth ; a notable example of 
which is Dracaena draco, or Dragon-tree, which has a 
cambium region, and continues to increase in diameter. 

Formerly these plants were called Endogens, meaning Inside growers, 
in contradistinction to Bxogens, or Outside growers, because the new ma- 
terial of growth was then supposed to be deposited always inside of the last 
deposit of woody bundles ; but as it is now known that the additions are 
interspersed among the former ones, in most cases without special order, the 
name is not expressive. Plants of this mode of growth have but one cotyle- 
don, or seed leaf ; their flowers are mostly three-parted, and their leaves 
generally parallel-veined. See Monocotyledons, pages 168-170. 

423. Tissues of the Pteridophyta. — The Ferns and 
their aUies have a complicated and well-marked organi- 
zation ; the outer bark is similar to that of the flower- 
ing plants, and vascular-woody fiber extends through- 
out the stem, and leaf stalks ramifying in the fronds, 
to which the great beauty of this division of the 
vegetable world is due. 



LEAF STRUCTURE. 



29 



A cross-section of a Fern stem shows a mass of 
parenchyma, supported by an outer sheath or tube of 
vascular-woody bundles, the whole 
inclosed by a cortex of dense scleren- 
chyma, the leaf stems presenting the 
same structure (Fig. 525). 

424. Tissues of Bryophyta, moss- 
like plants. — The higher types of this 
division, while largely made up of 
cellular masses, have a semi-vascu- 
lar-fibro arrangement, and in some 525, section of an Acrogenous 

stem of Tree-Fern (Cyathea), 

mosses the fibers are so strong as to showing the vascular bundles 

imbedded near the circumference 

approach a woody character. oftheceiiuiarmass. 




525 



CHAPTER V. 



LEAF STRUCTURE. 

425. Leaves are composed of the same general 
structure as the stems and branches which they clothe 
and adorn, and are made up of vessels and tissues 
already described: 1, tooody fiber, which constitutes 
the frame-work ; 2, cellular tissue, which fills up the 
spaces between the ribs or frame-work formed by the 
woody part. The leaf of a Maple, Elm, or Apple is 
composed of: 1, the leaf-stalky by which it is attached 
to the stem or branch ; 2, the blade, the expanded 
part. The leaf-stalk or petiole is a column of bundles 
of woody fiber and green tissue, covered by the epi- 
dermal tissue. These bundles extend in length to suit 
the size of the blade, throwing off branches and 
branchlets to construct the frame, making an irregular 
net-work, the meshes of which are filled up by the 



30 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



green tissue. (See Structural Botany, Chapters XX.- 
XXIII. inclusive.) 

426. An important function of the leaf is to expose 
a large surface ; consequently, the blade is thin and so 
formed as to present the largest number of cells to 
the air and sunlight. 

The layer on the upper side of the blade is made 
up of oblong cells, closely packed with their ends next 
to the surface. The lower layers are made up of 
smaller, more irregular and more loosely arranged 
cells, and have their 
longer diameters in the 
direction of the surface 
of the blade. The deep 
green color of the up- 
per surface of leaves is 
largely due to the com- 
pactness of the green 
cells in the upper layer, 
while the paler color of 
the under side is the 
consequence of the 
loose arrangement of 
those in the lower strata. The epidermal covering of 
the leaf, as before described, is a thin membrane made 
up of one, two, or three layers of empty thick-walled 
cells (Figs. 489-624 inclusive). 

42 7. Respiration is the act of drawing air into the 
lungs and casting it out again. (From the Latin re, 
again, and spirare, to blow or breathe.) The air while 
in the lungs is known to part with some of its oxygen, 
and what is breathed out is charged with substances 
which it did not possess when taken in ; therefore the 




626, Magnified portion of the leaf of Viola tricolor in 
perspective ; a, cells of the epidermis, sometimes called 
plate cells; &, compact layer of green cells next to the 
upper surface; c, loose cells below; d, epidermal cells of 
the lower surface, with stomata, one of which is cut to 
show its opening into the intercellular passages. 



LEAF STRUCTURE. 



31 



taking in of oxygen and its combination with other 
substances while in tlie lungs and the liberation of 
substances thus formed constitute respiration in ani- 
mals. So with plants ; they suck or draw in air 
through openings in the epidermis already described, 
and when it is discharged it is found to be changed in 
character, having been robbed of its oxygen or of its 
carbon dioxide. The oxygen of the air while among 





528 

527, Is the section of a young stem or branch showing, at p, the pith; a, vascular-fibro bundle, passing 
oflF from the stem to form the leaf-stalk and frame-work of the blade; d, the swelling just below the foot of 
the stalk; ?, the base of the footstalk; h, the axillary bud; c, the articulation or point where the leaf-stalk 
is attached to the branch or stem. 528, Magnified section of a leaf perpendicular to its surface; P, hair on 
the upper surface; Sr, stoma; Es^ epidermis of the upper surface made up of plate cells (§ 391); Ps^ oval 
cells closely packed with longer ones perpendicular to the epidermis; M, interspace beneath the stoma; 
Z, interspaces among the irregular shaped, loosely packed cells of the lower stratum Pi\ Fv, cross-section 
of fibro-vascular bundle; Ei, lower epidermis with hairs. (See Figs. 4S9 to 5<}0.) 

the tissues unites with substances found there, and 
new material for plant growth is thus formed ; in the 
night carbon dioxide is breathed out. It has been 
shown by experiment that air is not only required for 
the health of plants, but that they can not exist with- 
out it ; for when placed in a vacuum, they invariably 
perish. Respiration is therefore necessary to the life 
of plants as well as to animal life. 

428. Breathing goes on in all parts of plants ex- 
posed to the air, at night as well as in the daytime ; 



32 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

and at night especially oxygen is consumed and car- 
bon dioxide is set free. This fact has led to the in- 
ference that 

Potted plants in a living room render the air unfit 
to breathe ; but carefully conducted experiments have 
shown that one hundred ordinary stove plants would 
not injure the air of a moderate sized sitting or living 
room to an extent that could be in any way injurious. 

429. Metabolism is the name applied to the process 
which goes on in the structure of living plants that 
alters one kind of material of plant growth into an- 
other ; an example of which is the change of starch 
into cellulose. 

430. Assimilation is the process of taking into the 
plant's structure surrounding substances and convert- 
ing them into materials for plant growth, and consists 
mainly in changing inorganic substances into vegetable 
structure. The bulk of all woody plants is largely com- 
posed of carbon, hence assimilation in such plants con- 
sists mainly in disintegrating carbon dioxide, and ap- 
propriating the carbon. Assimilation is carried on in 
the cells of the green tissue and in sunlight. 

Some of the substances suspended in the watery 
fluids of plants and the constituents of water itself are 
used directly by the protoplasm in the preparation of 
food ; carbon dioxide, however, must first be decom- 
posed, in which process its oxygen is set free, and the 
carbon enters into the ligneous structure, or both oxy- 
gen and carbon enter into new combinations which the 
protoplasm can use. For example, water and carbon 
dioxide contain all the materials found in starch. 
These compounds having been separated into their 
constituents, the elements reunite in quantities that 



LEAF STRUCTURE. 33 

produce starch and other carbohydrates, as oils, sugars, 
gums, etc. These are either used to supply the plant's 
immediate wants or stored in some of its organs for 
future use. 

The decomposition of water and carbon dioxide lib- 
erates oxygen, which may be seen in bubbles on the 
submerged parts of water plants ; this gas escaping 
into the air, helps to keep it pure. 

431. Movements of fluids. — -The root takes up from 
the earth the watery substances which are presented 
to it ; the cells at the extremities of the root and 
rootlets are first gorged ; these impart to the cells and 
vessels next in contact, which take up the fluids by in- 
filtration, and so they are passed on up the stem through 
the cell walls of the last season's wood, and outward 
through the same class of cell walls, along the branches 
to the leaves and new twigs. Having reached these 
green parts, much of the water passes off by evapor- 
ation ; what remains becomes changed by the action 
of sunlight and fitted for building up the plant's struc- 
ture. It then by some mode of transfusion finds its 
way back to all the growing parts of the plant where 
new material is needed. 

432. Circulation. — Careful observation and experi- 
ment have demonstrated that there is an upward cur- 
rent of water or watery fluids through the stem, by 
way principally of the fibro-vascular tissues ; but no 
downward movement has been detected answering to 
a current. Hence there is not a circulation which cor- 
responds to what takes place in the higher animals. 
Yet the prepared sap reaches parts of the plant's 
structure lower than the points where it was prepared ; 
hence it must go downward. 



34 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

How the elaborated sap passes back and even 
downward through the wood tissues that are at the 
same time employed conveying the crude watery fluids 
up from the root is not understood. We are not ac- 
quainted with any physical or chemical force which 
causes the crude sap to creep through the cells and 
ducts of the trunks and branches of great trees, hun- 
dreds of feet in height; nor is the transfusion of the 
prepared fluids and cell materials to every part of the 
plant's structure where food is required less difficult 
to explain. 

In fact, observation and experiment have thus far 
failed to account for these mysterious movements. 



CHAPTER VI. 

FERTILIZATION. 



433. The higher plants produce seeds, each of 

which contains an embryo of a new plant. The seed 

has already been defined as the ripened ovule or as 

the fertilized and mature ovule. The fertilization of 

the ovule is accomplished by the mingling of the 

protoplasm of the pollen cell with the protoplasm of 

the ovule, which is brought about in the following 
manner : 

434. Process of Fertilization.— The ripened anther 
opens and discharges its pollen grains, some of which, 
by the action of the wind or the aid of insects, reach 
the stigma ; when one has secured a lodgment, influ- 
enced by the moist surface of the stigma, it germi- 
nates, sends down through the tube of the style a 
tube as the radicle of the seed penetrates the earth 



FERTILIZATION. 



35 



(Chapter III., Introduction). This dehcate tube pro- 
longs itself downward till it reaches the ovary, enter- 
ing it ; comes in contact with 
the ovule, which it penetrates, 
and discharges the proto- 
plasm of the pollen grain 
upon the protoplasm of the 
germ cell, or ovule, and thus 
fertilizes it. The protoplasm 
of the two cells having min- 
gled, the ovule ripens into' a 
seed, in which resides the 
embryo of a new plant. 

The quantity of proto- 
plasm in the ovule or germ 
cell is greater than that con- 
tained in the pollen grain. 

435. Gamogenesis (Grreek 
yd[ioq^ marriage, yeveoiq^ pro- 
duction). — Formation by mar- 
riage is the name applied to 
this mode of fertilization. 

436. Conjugation is the 




529, Section of the ovary of Polygonum Penn* 
sylvanicum, in process of fertilization. (Magni- 
fied 20 diameters.) c, Natural size ; n, one of the 
name of another mode, which stamens, having discharged its poUen; <, a grain 

of pollen and its tube ; 5, styles and stigmas ; o. 
is accomplished by the union ovary, omle, embryo sac containing the embry- 
■*- *^ onic globule. The extremity of a pollen-tube is 

of two similar cells side by seen in contact with the embiyo sac. 

side, the combination resulting in a germinating cell. 

437. The ovule fertilized becomes a new center of 
growth. First it expands to a proper cell, attached to 
the wall of the sac near the micropyle. It then, by 
division and subdivision, multiplies itself, and begins to 
take form according to the species, showing cotyledon, 
plumule, etc., until fully developed into the embryo. 



36 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



In the case of the Conifers (Pines, Cedars, Pirs), where no styles or stig- 
mas exist, the pollen falls directly into the microphyle of the naked ovule, 
and its tubes settle into the tissue of the nucleus. 

438. Germination. — The ovule matures with the 
completion of the embryo, and passes into the fixed 
state of the seed in which the embryo 
sleeps. A store of nutritive matter, 
starch, gluten, etc., is thoughtfully pro- 
vided in the seed for the use of the 
young plant in germination, until its 
root has gained fast 
hold of the soil. 

439. The changes 
which occur in the 
seed at the recom- 
mencement of growth 
are simply such as are 
requisite to reduce its 
dry deposits to a solu- 530 531 

^iri-r^ tttViiWi qViqII nr\-n 530, Ovule of Viola tricolor, sho\dng the process of fertili- 

UiULL WlliCU bUdii UUil- zation; p, poUen; t, tube; r, raphe; c, chalaza; h, primine; a, 

, • , -I secundine; n, nucleus; 5, sac, which the tube appears to have 

tain tne proper ma- penetrated. 531, Growth of the embryo in Hippuris vulgaris. 

, . 1 p U -P The fertilized cell has divided itself into several, of which c, & 

TJeriaiS rOr Ceil-lOrma- constitute the suspensor attached to the apex of the sac; a, em- 

, . 1 T /-N T J hvjo dividing into two, then into four cells. 

tion or growth. Grluten 

and other nitrogenous matters, oil, starch, etc., are to 
be changed to diastase and dextrine. To accomplish 
this, water is taken up, oxygen absorbed, plant-food 
dissolved and moved to points where it is needed, and 
used in constructing new cells and tissues. 

440. Ripening of Fruits. — After the fruit has attained its full growth 
the process of ripening commences, during which the pulp becomes gradually- 
sweetened and softened, chiefly by the change of the starch into more or less 
of soluble sugar. Thus ripening is to the pericarp what germination is to the 
seed. In its earliest stage the pericarp consists of structure similar to that of 
green leaves, composed of cellular, vascular, and woody tissues, and epider- 
mis and stomata. Its distended growth afterward results from the accumula- 
tion of the flowing sap, which here finds an axis incapable of extension. Thus 





FERTILIZATION. 37 

arrested in its progress, it gorges the pistil and adjacent parts, is condensed by 
exhalation, assimilated by their green tissues, which still perform the office of 
leaves. Cell-formation goes on rapidly within, and the excess of cellulose is 
deposited in the cells as starch. Oxygen is usually absorbed in excess, acidi- 
fying the juices. 

441. In the same way we account for the produc- 
tion of honey in the flower. Copious deposits of starch 
are provided in the receptacle and disk (§ 85). At the 
opening of the flower, this is changed to sugar, to aid 
in the rapid development of those delicate organs 
which have no chlorophyl wherewith to assimilate 
their own food. The excess of sugar flows over in the 
form of honey. The wise economy of the honey is 
seen in fertilization. For, attracted by it, the insect 
enters the flower, rudely brushes the pollen from the 
now open anthers, and inevitably lodges some of its 
thousand grains upon the stigma ! 

442. Experiment has proved that in all these cases of the formation of 
sugar from starch, a molecule of water is absorbed— a process which we might 
expect, since starch (O12 H20 Oio), or nCCeHioOs) contains proportionably two 
less hydrogen and one less oxygen than sugar (O12 H22 On) contains. 

443. Pollination, cross-fertilization, etc. — Pollen is 
essential to the fertilization of the flower. It must 
not only be produced, but must also in some way be 
conveyed to the stigma, and lodged on its surface. 
Another requisite is that the pollen and pistil shall 
either be : 1st, parts of the same flower ; or, 2d, of other 
flowers of the same plant; or, 3d, of the same species; 
or, 4th, of closely related species. In the first and 
second cases the process may be called self-fertiliza- 
tion ; in the third case, cross-fertilization ; in the 
fourth case, hybridization . 

444. Whether the first, second, or thirds process 
shall prevail in any given species will depend on the 



38 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

structure, number, or arrangement of the floral organs. 
In the few flowers which never open, — the Cleisto- 
garaous^ such as the late apetalous flowers of the Blue 
Violet, and also probably those of Gentiana Andre wsii, 
only self-fertilization is possible. But in the multitude 
of open flowers with both stamens and pistils exposed, 
as in the Lily, Rose, Morning Grlory, either self or cross 
fertilization is possible unless determined by some 
other special circumstance. The stigma may receive 
pollen directly from its own stamens, or indirectly 
from other flowers near or remote, through the agency 
of winged insects, humming-birds, or of the wind. 
Again there are flowers in which the organs are so 
situated that self-fertilization is very difficult, or even 
impossible. Of this class are the Asclepiads and 
Orchids, whose pollen, cohering in masses (pollinia), is 
inclosed in cavities, and only dragged forth by insects 
to be carried to other flowers. So in Iris, where the 
extrorse anthers and petaloid stigmas are averted from 
each other, the former beneath, and shedding its pollen 
downward. 

445. Dichogamous Plants. — In some species the 
stamens and pistils are not cotemporary in the same 
plant, but the stamens of one plant mature at the 
same time with the pistils of another plant, and vice 
versa. This necessitates cross-fertilization, and the 
agency of the wind or of insects. We have examples 
in the Q-rasses, the common Plantain, in Scrophularia, 
etc. 

446. Dimorphous Plants are such as the Mints 
(Mentha), the Yellow Jessamine (Q-elsemium), Hous- 
tonia caerulea, etc. In these the flowers assume two 
forms, with the stamens and pistils cotemporary in 



FERTILIZATION. 39 

both. In some the stamens are exserted and pistil 
included, while in others the stamens are included and 
style exserted. This arrangement also favors cross- 
fertilization through insect agency. 

447. The service thus performed by insects in be- 
half of vegetation is very important. Numerous spe- 
cies are wholly dependent on bees, moths, flies, for the 
dissemination of their pollen, and consequently for 
their very existence. Many other species, although 
capable of self-fertilization, are still greatly benefited 
by the intercrossings of pollen which the visits of 
insects occasion. Of course the bees have no idea of 
these benefactions. They visit the flowers solely for 
their own good. The nectar which they seek is always 
so situated as to oblige them to disturb the pollen or 
poUinia as they pass and repass, get besprinkled with 
it, and so encounter the stigmas from flower to flower. 

448. It would seem important that the bee or moth 
should conflne its visits during any one excursion to 
plants of the same species. And this it often does, as 
shown by observation, avoiding the mingling of its 
nectars as well as the confusion of its pollens. In 
accomplishing this, the insect may be led by habit, 
becoming accustomed, for the hour, to one form of 
nectary; or it may be drawn by uniform odor of the 
flowers, or by their gay and special colors. For we 
observe that the flowers of grasses and of forest trees 
whose pollen is wafted by the wind, requiring no aid 
from insects, are destitute both of bright colors and of 
fragrance, and of honey. 

449. From these observations and many others of 
similar import, it is inferred that Nature insists on the 
fertilization of the stigma in every plant hy all means^ 



40 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

at least when growing in its native home ; also, that 
of the two general modes, self\ or cross, she greatly 
prefers the latter, 

450. What are the reasons for this preference? 
The solution of this inquiry has engaged the attention 
of many skillful investigators, until it seems to be 
proved that the offspring of cross-fertilization are as a 
rule decidedly superior in size, vigor, and variety, 



PART THIRD. 

SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 

451. Systematic Botany has for its object the ar- 
rangement of Plants into Groups and Famihes accord- 
ing to their characters, for the purpose of facilitating 
the study of their names, affinities, habits, history, 
properties, and uses. In this department the prin- 
ciples of Organic and Physiological Botany are applied 
and brought into practical use. 

452. But there is another and higher import in the 
study of Systematic Botany. It shows us Plants as 
related to each other and constituting one magnificent 
system. It reveals the Almighty Creator at once em- 
ployed in the minutest details and upon the boundless 
whole ; equally attentive to the perfection of the indi- 
vidual in itself, and to the completeness of the System 
of which that individual forms a necessary part. 

453. The necessity for such an arrangement of the Species will appear 
when we consider their immense number. They meet us in ever-varying 
forms at every step, clothing the hills, mountains, valleys, and plains. They 
spring up in hedges and by the way-side. They border the streams and lakes, 
and sprinkle over their surface. They stand assembled in forests, and cover 
with verdure even the depths of the Ocean. Not less than 150,000 kinds are 
already distinguished, and the catalogue is still growing. 



42 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

454. Into this vast kingdom of Nature the student is introduced, and pro- 
poses to acquaint himself with each and every object. How shall he begin? 
Evidently he must begin with the individual — a single individual plant. But 
(thanks to Him who created both the plant and the mind— the object and the 
subject), he is not left to continue the study in a method so endless and so 
hopeless. As if in special regard to the measure of the human intellect and 
the means of its culture, the Q^reat Author of Nature has grouped these 
myriads of individuals into the following divisions : 

455. Species are individuals of a common origin or 
parentage capable of producing their kind, though fre- 
quently differing from each other in size, form, and 
other unimportant characters. A species has been de- 
fined as a "succession of individuals which reproduces 
and perpetuates itself." 

456. Variety, or Race, is a sub-species. This term 
is applied to individual plants that possess marked 
variations from specific characters, but not of suffi- 
cient constancy to entitle them to the rank of species. 
These differences are frequently brought about by the 
quality of the soil or locality, but especially by culti- 
vation. 

Race characters' are perpetuated and become con- 
stant by grafting, budding, and carefully selecting 
well-marked individuals from which to obtain seed. 

The desirable characters of most of our fruits and 
table vegetables are made constant in this way. 

457. Genus is the name for a Group of individual 
plants which resemble each other in the form and 
structure of their organs of Fructification and Hepro^ 
duction. 



Illustration.— The individuals of the Crowfoot Kind differ in the size and 
color of their flowers, some of which are yellow, others white , in the size and 
form of their stems, some of which grow erect, others prostrate and in the 
shape of their leaves. Their organs of Fructification, however, are all con- 
structed upon the same plan, and the function of polination is performed in 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 43 

the same manner ; hence they are grouped together and constitute the Genus 
Kanuuculus. 

458. Orders. — But natural affinities do not end here. The genera are yet 
too numerous for the ready and systematic study of the naturalist. He, there- 
fore, would generahze still further, and reduce the genera to still fewer and 
broader groups. On comparing the genera with each other, he finds that they 
also possess in common certain important characters which are of a more 
general nature than those which distinguish them from each other. By these 
general characters the genera are associated into Orders. 

459. For example : comparing such genera as the Mustard, Radish, Cab- 
bage, Cress, "Wallflower, etc., it is seen that, while they differ sufficiently in 
their generic characters, yet they all have certain marked resemblances in 
their didynamous stamens, siliquous fruit, whereby they are obviously asso- 
ciated in the same Order — the Cruciferse. So, also, the Pines, the Spruces, 
the Cedars, the Larches, and the Cypress, while as genera they are obviously 
distinct, yet all bear cones of some form, with naked seeds ; hence they are 
naturally grouped into pne Order — the Coniferse. 

460. Classes. — In like manner the Orders, by traits of resemblance still 
more general, are associated in a few groups, each of great extent, called 
Classes. 

461. Intermediate Groups, formed on the same principles, are recog- 
nized as Subgenera, Suborders or Tribes, and Subclasses or Cohorts, which 
will be particularly noticed in another place. Of the same nature, also, are 
"Varieties, which are groups subordinate to species, already described, 456. 

462. Systems. — Two independent and widely dif- 
ferent methods of classifying the genera have been 
generally approved — the Artificial Method of Linnaeus, 
and the Natural System of Jussieu. The former is 
founded solely on characters relating to the organs of 
fructification, leaving all other natural afiinities out of 
view. It is simply an arrangement devised by Linnaeus 
for convenience in the analysis of plants — as words in 
a dictionary, for convenience of reference, are arranged 
alphabetically^ without regard to their nature. It is 
now superseded by — 

463. The Natural System. — This method or system 
of classification, on the contrary, makes use of every 
natural character and takes for its basis all those 
natural affinities and resemblances of plants whereby 
Nature herself has distinguished them into groups and 



44 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

families. It seizes upon every character wherein plants 
agree or disagree, and forms its associations only upon 
the principle of natural affinity. Hence, each member 
of any natural group resembles the other members ; 
and a fair description of one will serve, to a certain 
extent, for all the rest. 

464. The species and genera are formed on this 
principle of classification, as above stated, and are 
truly natural associations. Individuals altogether simi- 
lar — cast, as it were, in the same mold — constitute a 
species. Species agreeing in nearly all respects, and 
differing but in few, constitute a genus. Thence the 
genera, associated by their remaining affinities in 
groups of few or many, by this same method are 
organized into Natural Orders and other departments 
of the System. 



CHAPTER II. 

NATURAL SYSTEM. 

465. Botanists during the last two hundred years 
have labored to group and arrange the individuals of 
the vegetable kingdom so that the natural characters 
of each group shall be most like those of the next 
preceding group. 

466. In 1694, Tournefort, a French physician and 
botanist, published a method of arrangement in which 
he defined and established the term genus as we now 
understand it. 

467. Early in 1700, John Ray, an English natu- 
ralist, separated the vegetable kingdom into the foi= 
lowing general groups : 



NATURAL SYSTEM. 45 

I. Phanerogamia. — Plants that bear Flowers. 
11. Cryptogamia. — Plants that do not produce Flowers. 

Sub-divisions of Flowering Plants, 

1. Dicotyledones — Plants whose embryo has two seed 

leaves, or more than two. 

2. Monocotyledones — Plants whose embryo has one 

seed leaf. 

468. Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, in 1736, while 
only twenty years of age, published the outlines of 
his celebrated sexual system, based upon the num- 
ber, situation, and relative length of the pistils and 
stamens, which, though artificial and misleading, earned 
for its author a deathless fame. 

469. In 1789, A. L. de Jussieu, embodying the 
grand features of Ray with those of Tournefort, laid 
the foundation of the natural system which, under 
various modifications, has come down to us. 

470. August P. de CandoUe greatly modified the 
arrangement of Jussieu, especially by reversing the 
sequence, placing the most highly organized plants 
first in order. 

The following is a brief sketch of the latest ar- 
rangement, and is substantially the one mapped out 
by Sachs ; the order of sequence, however, is changed : 

471. Phanerogamia. — Flowering plants, or plants 
whose flowers or organs of fructification are exposed 
to view. 

Plants of this class have roots, stems, and leaves 
through which bundles of woody fiber extend ; they 
bear flowers, in special parts of which reproductive 
organs are produced that form embryonic bodies 



46 SYSTEMATIC BOTAISTY. 

called seeds; these seeds germinating, become new 
plants. 

472. Cryptogamia. — Flowerless plants or plants 
that do not produce seeds ; their reproductive appa- 
ratus forms cell-like bodies, without cottjledons^ called 
spores, which germinate indifferently from any part of 
the cell ; these spore-like seeds of the Cryptogams 
germinating, produce new plants. 

These plants are called flowerless, because their 
organs of reproduction are concealed or obscure ; hence 
the name Cryptogamia, or concealed nuptials. 

KINaDOM. 
VEaETABLE SUB-KTNaDOM I. 

473. Phanerogamia. — Plants that bear proper flow- 
ers and produce seeds, derived from the Greek words 
(pavepog^ open, and yd/JLog^ marriage, signifying open mar- 
riage. 

474. Class I. Dicotyledones. — Plants with two seed 
leaves or cotyledons. From the Q-reek words Slg^ two, 
and KOTvXrjdcdv^ a hollow disk, alluding to the shape of 
the coatings or walls of the seed leaves. 

475. Angiosperms. — Plants whose seeds are in- 
closed in a pericarp or vessel. From the Greek dyyelov^ 
a vessel, and anepixa, a seed, signifying plants whose 
seeds are inclosed by a covering ; as, the Apple, Maple, 
Oak, etc. 

476. Cohort 1, A. Polypetalae. — Dicotyledonous 
plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla ; 
corolla composed of separate petals, which are some- 
times slightly coherent at their bases ; as, the flowers 
of the Buttercup, Apple, Strawberry, etc. 

477. Cohort 2, B. Gamopetalae. — Dicotyledonous 



NATURAL SYSTEM. 47 

plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla, with 
petals more or less united ; as, Elder, Arrow-wood, etc. 

478. Cohort 3, 0. Apetalae. — Dicotyledonous plants, 
whose flowers have a calyx but no corolla, and some- 
times neither ; as, Ragweed, Goosefoot, etc. 

479. Class II. Gymnosperms, Bicotyledones or Poly- 
cotyledones. — Plants whose seed is not inclosed by a 
vessel or pericarp, derived from the Greek words 
yvfivog^ naked, and onepijia^ seed, naked seed. Stem 
elongated, solid ; leaves nearly parallel-veined ; flowers 
not perfect ; pistil scale-like ; no stigma ; ovules not 
inclosed in a vessel ; embryo with two or more oppo- 
site or whorled cotyledons. 

480. Cohort 4, D. Coniferae. — Pines, Spruces, and 
other cone-bearing trees and shrubs. 

481. Class III. Monocotyledones. — Plants whose em- 
bryo has one cotyledon, or one seed leaf. Greek fidvogj 
alone or one, and kotv^7j66v. Blade of the leaf usually 
divided into two parts by a prominent midrib, with veins 
extending from the base to the apex parallel to the 
midrib ; flowers usually three-parted ; root not axial. 

This class is separated into three cohorts. 

482. Cohort 5, E. Spadiciflorae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants, with flowers on a spadix, frequently enveloped 
by a spathe ; Palms, Calla, and pond weeds. 

483. Cohort 6, F. Petaloideae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants whose flowers are usually perfect and complete ; 
floral envelope three-parted and double ; outer whorl 
colored green ; as, Lily, Lily of the Valley, etc. 

484. Cohort 7, G. Glumiferae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants whose floral envelope is chaff-like ; ovary single, 
with one ovule ; as, grass-like plants, Wheat, Rye, the 
Sedges, etc. 



48 



SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 








es^^=^4 



Fig. 532, c, A Fern ; Polypodium vulgare. a, Club-moss : Lycopodium dendroideum. 6, Equisetum 
(Scouring Rush or Horse Tail). d, a Liverwort Moss ; Marchantia. e, a Fungus or Mushroom ; 
Agaricus, in three stages of growth. 

STTB-KINaDOM TL. 

485. Cryptogamia. — Plants that do not produce 
proper flowers. From the G-reek Kpvirroq^ hidden, and 
ydfiog^ marriage. 

486. Class I. Pteridophyta. — Vascular cryptogams — 
Ferns and their aUies. From G-reek words Trrepig^ a 
fern, and (fyvTov^ a plant, signifying a fern-like plant. 

This class is divided into three cohorts. 

487. Cohort 1, H. Lycopodinae (Club Mosses). — 
Stem herbaceous, rooting at the nodes and creeping, 
simple or branched, sometimes tree-shaped ; foliage 
small ; leaf one-nerved ; fructification at the base of 
the leaf or in terminal catkins on the branches. Name 
from Greek words Avffoc^ a wolf, and rrovg^ a foot, due 
to the fancied resemblance of the roots to the foot of 
a wolf. 



NATURAL SYSTEM. ^'^ 

488. Cohort 2, I. Equisetacse (Horse Tails). — Stem 
straight, simple or branched, cylindrical, channeled ; 
stiff -jointed ; sheathed at the joints ; tops of the 
sheaths toothed. From Latin equus, a horse, and seta, 
a bristle or hair ; Equisetum, scouring rush. 

489. Cohort 3, J. Filicinae. — Ferns proper. Stem 
a horizontal creeping rhizome, sometimes erect ; foli- 
age pinnate or variously divided ; veins forked ; fructi- 
fication on the back or edge of the frond. Name from 
Latin fiUXj a fern ; Osmunda, Flowering Fern. 

THE -FOJAjOWINGt EIVE CLASSES 

are not treated in this book, and therefore will be 
briefly noticed only. 

490. Class IL Bryophyta. — Mosses and their allies 
(Q-reek ^pvov^ a moss, (pvrov^ a plant). 

Sub-class 1. Hepaticae, Liverworts. 
Sub-class 2. Musci, Mosses. 

491. Class III. Carpophyta. — Spore-fruited plants 
(Greek fcapnog^ fruit, (pvrov). 

Sub-class 1. Coleochaeteae, Q-reen fresh-water plants 
with few spores. 

Sub-class 2. Floridese, Red or purple marine plants. 
Sub-class 3. Ascomycetes, Parasites, spores in sacs. 
Sub-class 4. Basidiomycetes, Spores on stalks. 
Sub-class 5. Characese, Grreen fresh-water plants. 

492. Class IV. Oophyta. — Plants with egg-shaped 
spores (Greek (hSv^ an egg, and (pvrov). 

Sub-class 1. Zoosporse, Spore cells locomotive. 
Sub-class 2. OEdogoniese, Thread-like cellular body. 
Sub-class 3. Coeloblastese, Thread-like tubular body. 
Sub-class 4. Fucaceae, Large, color olive green. 

493. Class V. Zygophyta. — Unisexual plants (Greek 



50 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

^vyoVj a pair, and (pvrdv)^ plants in which the sexes are 
united. 

Sub-class 1. Zoosporeae, Cells capable of motion. 

Sub-class 2. Conjugatae, Cells fixed. 

494. Class VI. Protophyta. — First or most simple 
class of plants (Greek npajTog^ first, and (pvrov). These 
plants are the lowest vegetable organisms, and consist 
of single cells, or strings of cells. 

Sub-class 1. Myxomycetes, Slime molds, naked pro- 
toplasm, without regular form. 

Sub-class 2. Schizomycetes, Bacteria minute cells. 
Sub-class 3. Cyanophyceae, Green Slimes. 

495. Orders or Families succeed to the Cohorts. 
The Natural Order is perhaps the most important of 
all the associations. On the accuracy and distinct- 
ness of the characters of these groups botanists have 
bestowed the highest degree of attention, and the 
student's progress will largely depend upon his acquaint- 
ance with them. 

496. Orders are formed by associating together 
those genera which have the most intimate relations 
to each other, or to some one genus previously as- 
sumed as the type. As species form genera, so 
genera form Orders. In regard to extent, they differ 
widely ; some consisting of a single genus, as, Plata- 
naceae, while others comprehend hundreds of genera, 
as, Compositee. For convenience in analysis, the larger 
Orders are broken up into Sub-orders or Tribes, 

The Mowering plants of the whole world, known to botanists, have been 
grouped under 200 Orders, 7,500 Q-enera, and 100,000 species. About 80,000 of 
these species are Dicotyledons, and the remaining 20,000 are Monocotyledons. 

It is a high accomplishment in a botanist to possess an extensive ac- 
quaintance with individual plants. The ability to determine readily the genus 
and species to which a plant belongs depends largely upon an accurate knowl- 
edge of the characters of the orders and tribes. 



RULES IN NOMENCLATURE. 51 

497. The Natural System, then, with all its divis- 
ions, groups, and subordinations, may be exhibited 
at one view, as follows : 
Kingdom, 
Sub-kingdoms, 
Classes, 
Cohorts, 
Orders, 
Sub-orders, or 
Tribes, 
Genera, 
Sub-genera, 
Species, or 
Races. 



CHAPTER III. 
rules in nomenclature. 

498. The Names of the Orders are Latin adjectives, 
feminine, plural (to agree with plantce, plants, under- 
stood), usually derived from the name of the most 
prominent, or leading genus, by changing or prolong- 
ing the termination into acece^ as Rosacece^ the Rose 
tribe, Papaveracece^ the Poppy tribe, from Rosa and 
Papaver. Earlier names, however, derived from some 
leading character in the Order, and with various ter- 
minations, are still retained. Thus, Compositce^ with 
compound flowers ; Lctbiatce^ with labiate flowers. 

499. Generic Names are Latin substantives, arbi- 
trarily formed, often from some medicinal virtue, either 
supposed or real, or from some obvious character of 
the genus ; sometimes from some peculiar form of the 
flower, or from the name of some distinguished bot- 



52 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

anist, or patron of botany, to whom the genus is thus 
said to be dedicated. Also the ancient classic names, 
either Latin or Greek, are often retained. Examples of 
all these modes of construction will be seen hereafter. 

500. Specific Names are usually Latin adjectives, 
singular, and agreeing in gender with the name of the 
genus to which they belong. They are mostly founded 
upon some distinctive character of the species ; as, Viola 
blanda, Sweet-scented Violet ; V. cucuUata, Hood-leaved 
Violet. Frequently the species is named after some 
other genus, which, in some respect, it resembles ; as, 
Viola delpMnifoUa, Larkspur Violet. 

501. Commemorative Specific Names. — Species, like 
genera, are also sometimes named in commemoration 
of distinguished persons. The rules given by Lindley, 
for the construction of such names, are: 1st. If the 
person is the discoverer, the specific name is a sub- 
stantive in the genitive case, singular number ; as, 
Viola SelkirMi, Selkirk's Violet ; Lobelia Xalmii, 
Kalm's Lobelia. 2d. If the name is merely conferred 
in honor of the person to whom it is dedicated, it is 
an adjective ending in nus, na^ or num (according to 
the gender of the generic name) ; as, Tulipa Oesneri- 
ana, Gesnerian Tulip, or Q-esner's Tulip ; Erica Lin- 
neana^ Linnaeus' Heath. 

502. Rules for the use of Capitals. — The names of 
the order, the sub-order or tribe, and of the genus, 
should always commence with a capital letter. The 
name of the species should never commence with a 
capital except in the following cases: (1), when it is 
derived from the name of a person or of a country, as 
Phlox Drumraondii^ Aquilegia Canadensis; (2), when 
it is a substantive, as Delphinium Consolida. 



BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 53 

503. Synonyms. — Very frequently, the same species has been described 
by different (or even by the same) authors, under different names. Tn such 
cases it becomes a question, often of difficult solution, which name is to be 
adopted. Obviously, the prior name, that is, the original one, if it can be 
ascertained, is entitled to the most respect; and it is a rule with botanists 
to adopt this name, unless it has been previously occupied, or be strongly 
objectionable on some other account. All other names are synonyms. 

504. Autliorities. — In the J^ora which accompanies this work, immediately 
after the G-enus we insert the abbreviated name of the author by whom it 
was originally published, with a comma between, thus : Trifolium, Tourn. 
After a species the authority is Inserted withaat a comma, as T. repens L.,— 
that is to say, Trifolium repens (of) Linnaeus. In changing the generic rela- 
tions of a species (as subsequent writers often deem necessary), it is a custom 
for the author of the change to annex his own name, or a blank, instead of 
the original authority. The custom is often unjust, and always liable to 
abuse. It offers a bribe for innovations in the Genera, and recent works 
abound in changes which otherwise could scarcely be accounted for. "When 
such changes become necessary, the just and proper rule (actually adopted in 
ConcJwlogy) is the following. Let the original specific name and authority both 
be retained, the latter in parenthesis, thus. Lychnis G-ithago (Linn.) — origi- 
nally Agrostemma Githago Linn. This method is often but not always used 
in the present work. 

Authorities for our species of exotic cultivated plants, for want of space, 
have all been here omitted. 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 



The most favorable time of the year for the study of botany is 
that in which the plants are growing about us. The summer 
vacation is a favorite season for the formation of botany clubs of 
students and others. With Teachers' Eeading Circles pursuing the 
study of botany the case is different. Much of the regular Eead- 
ing Circle work is performed in the winter months^ when but few 
growing specimens of plants are available. This untoward cir- 
cumstance, which is plainly recognized, is to be met, so far as 
possible, by the following arrangements : 

(1) The Eeading Circle members are encouraged to secure in 
advance, during the summer months, specimens of the plants 
(generally familiar ones) to be studied. These should be pre- 
served by pressing, or by simply drying (often in both ways), for 
systematic study later on. 

(2) If for any reason the reader shall find himself without the 
specimen of any plant at the time when it is to be studied, the 
illustration in the book will be found so graphic in every detail 
that it will largely answer the purpose of the plant itself. 

(3) After the book shall have been studied throughout the 
Eeading Circle year, it is to be reviewed in the following vacation, 
and each of the plants studied again, by a careful examination in 
detail of a living specimen, for a confirmation of all that shall 
have been learned concerning it. 



OUTLINE OF now TO STUDY PLANTS. 



PLANT COLLECTIONS. 

While it is not supposed that all the readers of this book will 
collect an herbarium of the plants described, or that they will 
all have in use a table microscope for the study of special sub- 
jects, it is strongly recommended that teachers, especially, shall 
undertake to make a systematic collection of specimens of the 
more important plants, for preservation. Such an herbarium 
will prove an interesting and valuable possession. What is worth 
doing at all is worth doing well, and plant collections should be 
prepared with some care. On page 5 of this Outline will be found 
some directions and suggestions relating to this work. 

Without a practical experience in the study and analysis of 
plants, the learner cannot acquire the knowledge of botany 
which it is the purpose of this course of study to impart. He 
must not only lear7i the scientific terms ; he must 7tse them. The 
use of a plant record is almost indispensable. Let the analysis 
be written out as completely as possible, from the examination of 
the specimen or from the description given. 

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 

A diagram of the primary divisions^ of plants in the various 
systems of classification will be found on page 30, and will be 
of growing interest to the learner as the science of botany is 
unfolded in the successive lessons. 

Plants are now divided primarily into a few Natural Groups, 
based upon general resemblances. Formerly the Vegetable 
Kingdom was divided into two subkingdoms, but the leading 
authorities did not always agree as to what should be the basis of 
the division. With one it was the presence or absence of true 
flowers. With another it was the difference in the manner of 
reproduction. With another it was a question of the nature of 
the plant tissues — whether cellular (consisting of cells, and with- 
out ducts or fibers) or vascular (containing ducts, or vessels). 
With another it was the presence or absence of stems. 

Since all these features of plants are interesting and important, . 
it will be well for the learner to locate in the last column of the 
diagram on j)tage 30 the class to which the plant under considera- 
tion belongs, and to follow out its place in each of the systems. 
The scientific names, which ap23ear difficult and forbidding at 
tlic outset, will soon become easy and familiar. 



OUTLIXE OF now TO STUDY PLA^'TS, 



SUGGESTIONS RELATIVE TO PLANT COLLECTIONS 

The Flower Press. — The sim|)lest flower pi-ess consists of two flat boards, 
1*3x22 inches in size, bolted together by an ordinary bolt at the middle of 
each end. Unless the nuts be furnished with handles, a small wrench will 
be nec'ded to turn them. Cleats across the ends of the boards will prevent 
wai-ping. 

Drying mats of convenient size, consisting of several thicknesses of news- 
papers stitched together, should be supplied, and there should be also a few 
sheets of thin blotting-paper. 

Specimens. — It is desirable that a specimen of each plant studied in detail 
in the present course should be secured for the collection, though there are 
some that can be found only with dillicidty, and some cannot always be 
obtained. Generally, however, it will not be difFicidt to find representative 
specimens. The best time for securing tho^e of each sj^ecies is generally 
indicated in the book. From the time the work is procured, the possessor 
should begin to collect in advance the plants to be studied. The entire plant, 
with its root, should be taken, though no specimen !-hould exceed 16 inches 
in length. Where it is necessary to divide tlie plant, both the upper (branch- 
leaf) and the lower (seed-leaf) portions should be preserved. Specimeub ^\ ith 
flowers or fruit, or with both, should be secured. Two fronds of a fei-n 
should be taken, that both sides may be shown, or a large fern may be 
doubled back upon itself. Plants that are apt to come to pieces in the press 
should be previously steeped in boiling water. Mosses should be first dried 
and then moistened, preparatory to pressing. 

When pressed, specimens should lie in a natural position; crooked stems 
should not be straightened, nor straight stems curved. The pressure 
should be applied gradually, and continued for several days, the outer 
dryers being occasionally changed. 

Mounting. — The pressed specimens should be gummed to sheets of thick 
white paper or light cardboard, 16^ x 10^ inches in size. Sometimes the plant 
may be held in place by strips of gummed paper, but it is apt to be better 
preserved when fastened securely to the sheet. 

The sheets may be kept in a portfolio, consisting of pasteboard covers, 
fastened by tapes or straps passing through slits in each cover, forming a 
hinge behind, and tied or buckled in front. 

The sheets should be arranged with their backs to the left, and should 
bear a label on the lower left corner. The label should be neatly wi-itten, 
and should give the name of the plant (the scientific name, generic and 
specific, if the collector is sure of the species; also the common name), 
together with that of the collector and the time and place at which it was. 
gathered. 

In place of loose sheets, a scrap-book may be used, if preferred, and may 
be labeled in the same manner. 

Specimens Requiring Special Treatment. — Lichens, cones, seeds, etc., can- 
not be pressed flat. For these, suitable cases may be made by gluing old 
slate frames firmly to pieces of cardbo.-ird trimmed to the proper size. The 
wood of the frames may be covered with white paper. 



G OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 

Collections of Woods. — Cross-sections of trees form a very interesting 
part of a collection of woods. The sides shonld be exactly parallel, so that, 
when piled, Avith those of the largest diameter at the bottom, the disks wi'll 
form a cone. They may be joined together by means of screws-eyes in the 
opposite sides, or extended into a chain. There should be two screws-eyes on 
each side, wdiich should be lo#sely linked or tied in such a manner that the 
disks may be either piled or ^tended at will. Small longitudinal slabs of 
wood, having the general shape of a book, with the natural bark for the 
back, may be placed together in a case. 

Slides for the Microscope. — Microscopic slides without objects are called 
slips. They should consist of a piece of clear glass, 3x1 inches in size, 
with a small square or circular cover of very thin glass. They may be pro- 
cured of dealers, or prepared by the teacher with little trouble. A ring 
of cement (shellac dissolved in alcohol) about the center, to hold up and 
attach the cover, will inclose a space in which the object maybe placed and, 
if dry, fixed by touching with the white of an ^gg. The slide may be cov- 
ered with colored paper, leaving circular holes above and below the cell, and 
should be carefully labeled across one end. 

The Microscope Record. — A plain folio drawing-book should be kept, in 

which to record microscopic investigations. Artistic and carefully devel- 
oped drawings are not required. Simple outline drawings wdth a sketch 
pencil will answer every purpose. A brief description should accompany 
each sketch. 

Subjects for the Microscope. — Throughout the w^ork of the year, interest- 
ing subjects will be presented for microscopic investigation. Every teacher 
should possess at least a pocket lens for constant use. Where a compound 
microscope of high power is available, a much wider field is presented for 
study and investigation. However, if the teacher has no such instrument 
at hand, he will at least enjoy the large number of engravings of microscopic 
views in the book. 

Among the more interesting objects for observation are simple cellular 
tissue; fibro- vascular bundles; sporangia; antheridia and archegonia; 
stamens and pistils; pollen from the anthers; ovaries; seeds; plant hairs; 
protoplasm; cell-formation, and the various forms of woody structure; 
microscopic plants; plant crystals. 

Further Suggestion. — The teacher is not expected to limit his collection 
to the articles above described, though, for the sake of a general system, it 
may be well to follow the directions here given. Many other suitable means 
of preserving and displaying specimens and illustrating facts brought out in 
the study of plants will occur to the ingenious teacher. 



OUTLINE OF now TO STUDY PLANTS. 



FIRST MONTH— Pages 18 to 28. 

Our study of botany commences^ appropriately, with a Moss, 
wliicli belongs to one of the lower orders of plant life. The lat- 
ter were formerly neglected, but are now receiving very general 
and careful attention. It will be well if the reader have before 
him some specimens of this Moss, gathered both in fruit and in 
flower. However, if he have not, he will obtain a correct idea 
of the plant from a careful study of page 15, which contains 
eleven engravings, some of them representing the organs as seen 
under the microscope. On page 16 it will be found that this 
plant belongs to the Musci, or Mosses. 

After studying the lesson upon this Moss, the learner will find 
it interesting to refer to the diagram on page 30 of this Outline, 
and there to identify the class to which it belongs (the Musci), 
then to trace it through the columns to the left, and to note the 
peculiar position which it holds in relation to other classes of 
plants. In the system of Eay, the Mosses are classed as Flower- 
less Plants, notwithstanding the fact that they bear flowers of an 
inferior order. Linnaeus places them among the Cryp'togams (a 
word meaning plants whose reproductive functions are concealed), 
although these functions of the Mosses are not really '^ con- 
cealed."'' De Candolle includes them among the Cellular Plants, 
though they form a connecting link betw-een the Cellular and the 
Yas'cular. In Endlicher^s system they are classed with the Cor- 
moph'yta (plants with stems), and are on the border between 
these and the Thalloph'yta (plants Avithout stems). In the 
Natural Groups of Sachs and Goebel, the ]\Iusci and the Ilepat'- 
icse (Liverworts) together make up a single IS^atural Group, 
called the Muscin'eae, or Bry'ophytes. The Mosses thus seem 'to 
occupy a border land in the various systems, and to connect 
widely different forms of plant life. The Muscinese, or Bryo- 
phytes, form a delightful study for the student or scientist. 

1. Pigeon- wheat Moss. 2. Its root.^ 3. Its terete' stem.'' 
4. Its leaves;^ their shape and color.'' 5. Its terminal pedicel. 
6. Its fruit. 7. The antherid'ia ^ (plural of antherid'ium) of the 
male (sterile) flower, and the pistillid'ia, or archego'nia ' (plural 
of pistillid'ium and archego'nium), of the female (fertile) flower. 
(These correspond in function to the stamens and pistils of true 
flowers, to be studied later.) 8. The Cryp'toga'mia.' 9. Analy- 
sis of the specimen.® (Turning to the ^jlant record blanks, at 



8 OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 

the end of the vohime, the reader should write out the analysis 
of the plant.) 10. The review. (This should receive careful 
attention, the learner acquainting himself thoroughly with the 
meaning and use of the scientific terms employed.) 11. The use 
of the microscope.^ 

1. The Muscineoe do not possess true roots, but all have root-hairs, which 
answer the purpose. Tlie pro' tone 'ma (mesh of threads), described in the 
loot-note, must not be taken for a root. 

2. De Candolle divided the Vegetable Kingdom primarily into Cellular 
atul Vascular plants, with respect to their tissues. The Mosses occupy the 
borderdand of this division ; for while they are cellular in their structure 
(composed of minute cells comuiunicating with each other), the stems of tlie 
higher forms have a semi-vascular arrangement, with fibers, which will prove 
an interesting subject for microscopic study in Part 11. of the book. (iSee 
illustration, Part 11. , page 29.) 

3. Endlicher divided plants into two classes, viz. : plants with stems 
(Cormophyta) and shoots or fronds which have no proper stems (Thallophyta). 
II ere, again, the Muscinege are a connecting link. All true Mosses have dis^ 
tinct stems and leaves, and so have some of the Liverworts (Hepatica?), while 
others of the latter are not thus differentiated. 

4. The green color is due to the presence of chlo'rophyl, an important 
vegetable principle to be studied later. It consists of minute grains, lying 
loose in the cells of plants. All Mosses are chlorophyl-bearing, and most 
of them are bright green. 

5. These interesting organs are club-shaped, with thin walls, made up of 
cells in single layers. After a rain or a heavy dew, the mature organ 
beconies distended, and discharges a mass of mucilage. Imbedded in the 
mucilage are minute spiral, thread-like objects endowed with life, which are 
called spermatozoids'. Being set free by the \vater. they propel themselves 
through the moisture by means of hair-like appendages, called cilia. 

6. These are bottle-shaped organs, with slender necks. In their lower 
part (called the venter) lies the germ, a globule of the vital vegetable prin- 
ciple, called pro'toplasm. A row of cells extending above the venter 
becomes changed into a flow of mucilage, and forces the neck of the organ 
to dilate. The spermatozoids discharged from the antheridium find their 
way into the orifices and down through the necks to the Aenters of the arche- 
gonia, where they unite their substance with the germ cclfe. The latter, 
being thus fertilized, develop and divide into a mass of many cells, which is 

. known as the sporogo'nium. 

The essential element in the process of sexual reproduction is the formation, 
in the course of develo|)njent of the plant, ct cells of two different kinds, 
which have no independent power of further de^ ^iopment, but which, by their 
coalescence, give rise to a product which posses^ei' that power. — Sachs. 

7. Linnaeus gave to the so-called Flowerlesg Piairts of the earlier botan- 
ists the name Cryp'toga'mia (meaning concealed nuptials), and to the 
Flowering Plants the name Phen'oga'mia, now mol^e generally written 
Phan'eroga'mia (visible nuptials), referring to the reproductive functions of 
the plants. As a. matter of fact, however, the reproductive functions of 
Cryptogams are often more obvious than those of Phanei*c«:ams, tho\Lc:h the 
former were long undiscovered or misunderstood. The true nature li the 
spermatozoids was discovered by Unger, in 1837. 



OUTLINE OF now TO STUDY PLANTS. 9 

8. In order to acquire fjiniiliarity with the newer classification of Sachs 
and Goebel, the group and ehiss names may be taken from the diagram on 
page oO of this Outline. These are to be followed in the analysis by the 
name ol' the tribe, or order, as given in the book, and the names of the genus 
and the species, written together. The species of Polyt'richum just described 
is the Polytrichum commu'ne. Thus the analysis will be as follows : 

Classification. — Group, Muscinea). Class, Musci. 

Order (or Trihe), Mosses. 

Name, Latin, Polytrichum commune. English, Pigeon-wheat Moss. 

9. In this and in succeeding lessons, the frequent use of a good microscope 
will be of great value to the reader. The reproductive organs of the speci- 
men in hand should receive careful attention ; and throughout the entire 
work it should be borne in mind that plant physiology, and especially the 
organs and functions through which plant life is transmitted, are subjects 
of great importance in the modern study of botany. 

1. The Apple Moss. 2. Its dichot'omoiis stem. 3. Its lin'- 
ear sii'biilate leaves.^ 4. Its pedicel.^ 5. Its fugacious calyp'- 
tra. 6. Analysis of the specimen.^ 7. Scientific names; their 
use and value.'* 8. The number and value of the Mosses. 9. 
Sphagnum. ^ ( Specimens of this Moss and also of the Hepat'icae^ 
or Liverworts/ should be secured^ if possible^ and preserved for 
fa tare study.) 



1. These afford an excellent opportunity for the microscopic study of 
cellular tissue. 

2. The sporogoniura, in its development, carries up the old archegonium, 
as a calyptra. 

3. In this, and in subsequent analyses of the Cryptogams, to be written 
in the plant record, it will be well to make use of the Natural Groups and 
classes of Sachs and Goebel, though the terms of the old classification are 
still in general use. 

4. Many old scientific terms which are no longer applicable in their 
original meaning, are still used by botanists of the present day. Thus the 
word Cryptogamia, while often employed in a general way, has lost its 
original meaning, and does not constitute one of the modern Natural 
Groups, but includes several. 

5. Specimens of Sphagnum can be easily procured from florists, to whom 
this Moss is valuable for packing, because of its property of retaining mois- 
ture. Sphagnum is a large, generally pale-colored Moss, common in swamps 
and marshes. The root-hairs of the young plant disappear later. As it 
grows above, it dies below, and is nourished by the branches which bend 
downw^ard. The archegonia are found singly at the bases of the leaves ; the 
antheridia at the bases of certain branches. Concerning the Sphagnum, 
Dr. Alfred C. Stokes writes as follows in his Microscopy for Beginners : 

"The leaves make exquisite microscopic objects, on account of their 
curious and beautiful structure. Each leaf is formed of two kinds of cells. 
The large ones will, when magnified, immediately attract the attention. 
They are hollow, and usually empty, and they have a spiral thread running 



10 OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 

around their walls. At certain stages of growth the cell-wall also has one 
or more small openings, so the water is able to pass in and fill the cell. This 
may explain why the plant retains moisture so long, and why it is so easily 
wetted. The second kind of cells are found between the large ones. They 
are much smaller and narrower, and commonly contain chlorophyl grains, 
which, while usually not abundant enough to tint the whole a bright green, 
yet give it that beautiful pale hue almost characteristic of it. These cells 
will probably need to be searched for the first time the beginner studies the 
Sphagnum leaf, as they are not apt to catch the eye. The Moss seems to 
have no roots." 

6. Various features of these are common, appearing early in the spring, 
about rocks and stumps. For an illustration of a Liverwort (the Marchan'tia) 
see Part II., page 48. The Marchantiapolymor'pha is everywhere common. 
Its thallus (or body of cellular expanse not dift'erentiated into stems 
and leaves) is 2 to 5 inches long and ^ to 1| wide. It is porose (pierced with 
small holes or pores), and venulose (full of small veins). The male and 
female plants are distinguished by their organs. In the female the fruit 
is borne on pedun'cles (stalks) 1 to 3 inches in height, the receptacles (for 
organs) at the top being separated generally into nine radiating and pointed 
divisions. The antheridial (male) disk is divided into two or three lobes, 
and rests on a peduncle, generally less than an inch in height. 

1. The Polypod Fern. 2. The rhizome' and its uses. ^ 3. The 
frond; its stripe and pin'nse.^ 4. Fork venation^ and feather 
venation.'* 5. The so ri, and their sporan'gia ; the mystery of 
the fern seed. 6. The prothal'lus^ or prothallium.^ 7. Alter- 
nate generation.^ 8. Analysis. 

1. Plants are divided, with reference to their life, into annuals, biennials, 
and perennials. The annuals are designated as herbs. 

2. The Ferns are well supplied with chlorophyl. None of them are 
parasit'ic (subsisting upon other plants). The plant is not of rapid growth. 
The rudiment of the petiole forms one year, the rudimentary blade the 
next, and the opening of the frond occurs in the third year. 

3. See page 56. The veins of this species are free (not reticulate, or con- 
stituting a network). 

4. Contrast this with parallel venation (see page 31) and with palmate 
venation (see page 54). 

5. The prothallium (prothallus) is green, is generally above the ground, 
and is usually monoecious (a single one containing the organs of both sexes. 
See page 231). The antheridia and the archegonia are on the under surface. 
These were first identified by Count Lesczyc-Suminsky, in 1848. The germ 
cell, after it is fertilized, becomes divided into four parts, the uppermost 
remaining connected with the prothallium, the others developing into the 
stem, root, and leaf. Thus the new plant is formed on the under side of the 
prothallium. 

6. In the Muscineae, Ferns, etc., the nature of the alternation of gen- 
erations is such that the sexual differentiation is developed in one of the 
generations, while it is neutralized in the succeeding generation. In these 
cases, therefore, we have a sexual and an asexual (non-sexual) generation 
(the one with organs, the other without them), in the course of the develop- 
ment of the same individual. — Sachs, 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 11 

The Ferns belong to the chiss Filiciii'ea\ Referring to the diagram on 
page 80 of tliis Ontline, it will be seen that they b(.'long to the Vascular 
C'ryptoganis of Sachs, the Corniophyta of Endlicher, the Vascnlar Plants 
of De CandoUe, the Cryptoganiia of Linnaens, the Flowerless Plants of 
luiy. In the Natnral Group of Sachs they are associated with two other 
classes of living plants, viz.: the Equisetin'ea^ (Horsetails) and the Lyco- 
podin'eo} (Club Mosses), and with a class of fossil species, called the Spheno- 
phyl'lea?. A representative of each of the two living classes is described in 
the Outline notes for the ensuing week. If specimens of these can be easily 
obtained, it will be found desirable to have them, in order that each class 
may be represented in the collection and the plant record of the reader. 

1. Clayton^s Osmiiii'da. 2. Its divar'icate root. 3. Its bipin- 
nat'ifid frond. 4. The Osmunda cinnamo'mea, and the Os- 
miinda regalis ; their analysis. 5. The order Fil'ices ; number 
and variety of its species. 6. The importance of Ferns in 
the geological ages. 7. The Adian'tum' (Maidenhair). 8. The 
Lygo'dium"^ (Climbing Fern). 9. The Pteris^ (Common Brake). 
10. Analysis of specimens. 11. Alternation of Cryptogamic 
and Phanerogamic growths. 12. Other Vascnlar Cryptogams — 
Eqnise tineas"* (Florsetails), Sphenophyllea^ (a gronp of fossil sjoe- 
cies)^ and Lycopodinea3^ (Club Mosses). 13. Other Cryptogams.* 



1. The Adiantum, or Maidenhair Fern, is used for decorative purposes, 
and doubtless is familiar to very many readers. The stipes of the Adian- 
tum are glossy black, their smooth surface shedding the rainfall. The 
Adiantum pecla'tum has the frond forked at the end of the stalk, the 
branches bearing on one side several pinnate divisions, the other side 
being entire (undivided). From this lower margin all the veins proceed. 
The fruit is borne cm tlie pinnae of tlie i.pper or cleft margin. 

2. The Lygodium is more rare. It possesses the ])roperty of twining 
spirally, seemingly in the manner of a vine. Reference v\ill be nuide to it 
further on in this Outline. The climbing or twining frond of tlie Lygodium 
contains both large and small divisions, in pairs. The smaller ones bear 
the fruit in double rows of im'bricatetl (overlapping) scales, or shields (in- 
du'sia/), based on the short veinlets. The Lygodium palma'tum has two- 
forked petioles, each with a four to seven-loV)ecl frondlet. 

3. The Pter'is, or Brake, is a familiar plant. Its sporangia are arranged in 
a continuous line, along the margin of the fertile frond, but are entirely cov- 
ered by the turned edge, wdiich forms a continuous indu'sium, like a hem. 

4. In true Ferns and Equisetinea^, the spores are all alike. * * * In 
the Vascular Cryptogams which have two kinds of spores, and are there- 
fore termed itot'erosjw'rous Vascular Cryptogams, the separation of the 
sexes is previously indicated by the two kinds of spores ; for the mac'ro- 
spores (larcre spores) are female, and develop a very small prothallium, which 
l)roduces only archegonia, and sometimes only a single one. The mi'cro- 
spor(»s (small spores), on the other hand, are male, their very rudimentary 
pi-oth.?dliu]n producing only antheridia. — Goehel. 

Tlic lloi-^etails, or Scoui'ing Rushes, are familiar plants, and specimens 
of these can be obtained generally without difficulty. In the earlier gcolog- 



12 OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 

ical periods there were Iloi'setails with two kinds of spores, but all those 
species are extinct. There remains but one genus of Horsetails, of the 
class Equisetineie, the genus Equise'tum. For an ilhistration of one of 
the species of lliis genus, see Part 11., page 48. The root-stalk is perennial, 
hard, and dark colored, jointed, and often branched. The stem is cylindri- 
cal and jointed, its surfaces ridged. The nodes (joints) are solid, and ni'e 
surrounded with a toothed sheath. The Equisetum arvense' has its fertile 
(female) stem 4 to 10 inches high, with sheaths containing 8 to 12 teeth. 
The sterile (male) stem is 1 to 2 feet high, and has 10 to 14 furrows. Its few 
branches are four-angular (four-sided) with 4 teeth. (March to 3Iaj/ ) 

Equisetum arvense spores are worth collecting and examining as trans- 
parent dry objects. The plant is often called "Horsetail," or '^Scouri-ig 
Rush," and is to be found almost everywhere in sterile places, especially 
along the railroad. The spores are small, almost spherical, and have four 
long, narrow filaments which, when moistened, curl and curve and twist, 
and toss the spores about in every direction, by what has been styled a 
" quadrupedal hornpipe." If a quantity of them be placed on a (microscopic) 
slide and gently breathed upon, the moisture of the breath will set those 
four long threads into motion, and tlie dance will at once begin. — Sto/ces. 

Concerning the Heterosporous Cryptogams which have come down to us 
from the earlier world, Sachs remarks : " We have still two small, distinct 
families of Fern-like plants, which, in spite of their great differences, are 
usually grouped together under the absurd name Rhizocarpea? ; these are the 
Salvin'eae and the Marsili'ea?, in which are formed two kinds of spores entirely 
different in nature, and the same peculiarity is again met with in the case of 
the third great subdivision of the Vascular Cryptogams, namely the Lycopo- 
dia'ceae (Lycopodineie). Here also there are tw^o very different families, the 
Selag'inel'loe and the I'soe'teoe, in which two kinds of spores are produced. 
I cannot here suppress the remark that it harmonizes little with Darwin's 
views when we see repeated in three very different classes of the Vegetable 
Kingdom, with otherwise similar spores, a phenomenon so important as is the 
production of two kinds of spores, with their consequences. Certainly it 
cannot be explained by natural selection in the struggle for existence." 

In speaking of the "third great subdivision of the Avascular Cr>^pto- 
gams," Sachs refers to his own subdivision of them, which has not been 
strictly followed by Goebel. (See note 8, pa ire 28 of this Outline.) 

5. The class Lycopodinere contains the genus Ly'copo'dium. An illus- 
tration of one of the species of this genus is given in Part II., page 48. 
The plants of this class are low, with stems much branched, and covered 
with small lanceolate or subulate leaves. The sporangia (spore cases) are 
found singly in the axils (angles) of the leaves, or on their upper surfaces. 
The spore cases of the Lycopodium are coriaceous (of a leathery texture), 
and are usually reniform (kidney shaped), and divided into two valves, 
transversely around the margin. They discharge their sulphur-tinted 
spores in the form of a powder, which is inflammable. The Lycopodium 
clav'atum (Common Club Moss) has creeping stems (running under the 
ground and rooting), with short, ascending branches thickly covered with 
leaves, the fertile (female) ending in a delicate peduncle 4 to 6 inches high, 
each bearing, generally, two or three spikes. The leaves are linear-subulate, 
and bent inward. They are light green, and tipped with fine bristles: {July.) 

6. TheThallophytes, a group of Cryptogams of special interest in micro- 
scopic study, will be presented later on. 



OUTLINE OF now TO STUDY PLANTS. 13 



SECOND MONTH— Pages 29 to 64. 

We come, now, to the second subkingclom of the old botan- 
ists, the Phanerogamia/ or lowering Plants. These form a 
single bnt immense gronp in the system of Sachs, and are per- 
mitted by him to retain their old name, though Goebel adopts, 
as a more appropriate term. Seed Plants, or Sper'maphytes. 

1. The Dog-tooth Violet." 2. Its fibrous root and scaly 
stem. 3. Its leaves ; parallel venation ; pet'ioles. 4. The 
per'ianth. 5. The calyx, and its se'pals. 6. The corol'la, 
and its petals. 7. The pistil; its ovary, style, and stigma^ 8. 
The sta'men ; its firament and an'ther. 9. The pollen" ; its 
office of fertilization. 10. The plan of the flower. 11. The 
fruit ; its testa and embryo. 12. The grand division of the 
Phanerogams into Ex'ogens and En'dogens^, and the character- 
istics upon which it is based. 13. Eeview of scientific terms, 
and analysis of the specimen. 



1. The distinguishing characteristic of the Phanerogams, as contrasted 
with the Cryptogams, lies in the formation of the seed. This organ is 
developed from the ovule, which, in its essential part, the nucleus, pro- 
duces the embryo-sac, and in this the endosperm and embryonic vesicle. 
T'he latter is fertilized by the pollen-tube, an outgrowth of the pollen-grain, 
and, after first growing into a pro-embryo, produces the embryo. The 
Phanerogamic plant, which is dilferentiated into stem, leaves, roots, and 
hairs, corresponds to the spore-forming (asexual) generation of Vascular 
Cryptogams; the embryo-sac to the macrospore; the pollen-grain to the 
microspore ; and the seed unites in itself, at least for a time, the two genera- 
tions, the prothallium (endosperm), together with the young plant of the 
second (sexual) generation (the embryo). — Sachs. 

2. Like the Onion, Tulip, the TulDerose, the Star of Bethlehem, etc., the 
Dog-tooth Violet is a sort of Lily; while the Calla " Lily," and other such 
misnomicrs, are not Lilies at all. 

3. Doubts were entertained till as late as 1830 with regard to sexuality 
in plants altogether, or to its general prevalence in Phanerogams; the 
Cryptogams were not mentioned, for they were assumed to be devoid of sex, 
ill spite of many valuable observations of earlier times. These observations 
(Gartner's, 1849) once more confirmed the existence of sexuality in plants, 
and in such a manner that it could never again be disputed. — Sachs. 

4. Tliat fertilization is not the intimate union of two bodies possessing 
a definite form, but that the male fertilizing substance, at least, may be a 
si\np\Q fluid, appears to be distinctly shown by the process in Phanerogams. 
* * * * rf-j^Q granular contents of the pollen -grains, which were sup- 
posed to be spermatozoids, have since been partly found to be only innocent 
starch grains and drops of oil. — Sachs. 

The grains of the pollen have no motion of their own, but are transported 



14 OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 

to the stigma by various moans. In some cases they are borne by llio wind. 
In others, they are carried by insects or birds. In still others, the organs 
are so placed as to bring the surfaces of the anther and stigma into con- 
tact with each other. When the pollen-grain reaches the surface of tlie 
stigma, it absorbs moisture and begins to germinate. A slender tube shoots 
out from it, and forces its way into the tender tissues of the pistil, which it 
penetrates to the embryo-sac. Sometimes the latter grows out to meet it. 
The fertilizing substance passes through this tube and through the embryo- 
sac, either through a small opening in each or by diffusion through the 
membrane. 

Flowers which depend upon the wind for pollenization are called 
anemoph'ilous; those which depend upon insects (or more rarely upon birds) 
are called entomoph'ilous; and those in which the pollenization is effected 
by the contact between their own organs, without external aid, are known 
as autog'amous flow^ers. 

It is not yet certainly established Avhether an extremely fine actual open- 
ing in the membrane of the pollen-tube facilitates the direct entrance of the 
fertilizer protoplasm, or wdiether the membrane remains closed and the fer- 
tilizing substance diffuses over as a true solution. — Sachs (1882). 

5. This was the division of De Candolle. The names are not now 
scientifically applicable (though still commonly used in a general way), since 
the additions to the Endogenous trunks are not all internal, and the 
Exogens increase in thickness by internal growth. 

Sachs divides the Phanerogams into three classes, as follows: 

(1) Gym'nosperms, whose first leaves produced from the embryo are 
arranged in whorls (see index) of two or more. 

(2) jMon'ocot'yle'dons, whose first leaves produced from the embryo are 
alternate; the endosperm (a cell mass corresponding to the prothallium of 
the Cryptogam) is usually large, the embryo small. 

(3) bicot'yle'dons, whose first leaves form a whorl of two (or are opposite), 
the endosperm being generally rudimentary, and often entirely absorbed by 
the embryo before the ripening of the seed. 

The two latter classes are know^n as An'giosperms, in contradistinction 
to the Gym'nosperms of the same group^ (see page 220). The Monocotyle- 
dons correspond to the Endogens; the Gymnosperms and the Dicotyledons 
to the Exogens (see page 229). The specimen under consideration is there- 
fore a Monocotyledon. 

1. The Tulip. 2. Its timicated bulb.' 3. The peculiarity 
of the ovary ; of the stigmas. 4. Eemarkable history of the 
Tulip ; the Tulip mania in Holland. 5. Eeview and analysis. 
6. The Spring Beauty. 7. Its tuber f its peduncle^ ra'chis, 
and pedicels. 8. Centrijoetal inflorescence. 9. The arrange- 
ment of the floAver ; introrse' anthers. 10. The ovules ; their 
number. 11. The cot'yle'dons. 12. Unsymmetrical flowers. 
13. Imbricated buds. 14. Eeview and analysis. 15. The Por- 
tula'ca olera'cea^ ; its analysis. 



1. All true Lilies have bulbs. Note the difference between a bulb and 
a corm (see page 231). 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 15 

2. A tuber is a short, thick, subterranean branch, with numerous buds. 
Thus, the potato is not a root, but a stem, bearing leaf buds (eyes). A 
bulb, likewise, is not a root, but a subterranean bud. 

Underground tubers and bulbs are mere transitory structures, usually 
lasting only one period of vegetation. The former are characterized by a 
preponderance of the axial mass, with a very small amount of leaves; tlie 
latter, on the contrary, by the preponderance of leaves, closely united 
round a short stem. — Sachs. 

3. The order Portulaceae introduces us to the Angiosperms, representing 
the great class of "Exogens." All Exogens are Angiosperms, except the 
cone-bearing trees or shrubs. 

AYhile in Gymnosperms the flowers are typically unisexual (of one sex 
only), or declinous, hermaphroditism largely prevails among the Angio- 
sperms, although monoecious and dioecious (see page 137) species, genera, 
and families are not uncommon. The male fLow^ers are sometimes essen- 
tially different in structure from the female flowers, but in most cases the 
unisexuality arises merely from the partial or entire abortion either of the 
androecium (stamens) or the gyn^cium (pistils), the flower being in other 
respects constructed on the same type; and in such cases it also frequently 
happens that hermaphrodite flowers are developed in addition to the male 
and female. But even in the greater number of cases where the male and 
female organs are completely developed in hermaphrodite flowers, and 
functionally perfect, fertilization takes place by the conveyance of the pol- 
len of one flower to the gynaecium of other flowers, or even of other individ- 
uals of the same species, because either pollenization within the same 
flower is impossible in consequence of special contrivances, or because the 
pollen is potent only in the fertilization of ovules of another flower. — Sachs. 

1. The early Crowfoot. 2. The root ; the symbol of peren- 
nial herbs. 3. The radical and cauline leaves ; their alternate 
arrangement; sessile leaves. 4. Eeticnlate venation.^ 5. Hy- 
pog'ynons stamens.^ 6. The fruit; its carpels ; the ache'nium. 
7. Review and analysis. 8. The Bulbous Crowfoot. 9. Its 
inaxial root. 10. Its symmetrical flower. 11. Eeview and anal- 
ysis. 12. The Liverleaf (this Hepatica must not be confounded 
with the Hepaticae — Liverworts — of the Cryptogams). 13. Its 
radical and petiolate leaves ; its palmate and reticulate venation. 
14, Its anat'ropous ovule. 15. Eeview and classification. 



1. See note, page 190. 

2. Note the symbols by which the stamens and pistils are designated (see 
page 231). Note also the distinction between perfect and complete flowers. 

1. The Eue Anemone. 2. Its tuberous roots. 3. Its biter- 
nate leaves. 4. The umbel. 5. Eeview and classification. 
6. The Wood Anemone. 7. Its solitary inflorescence. 8. Its 
fruit. 9. Eeview and classification. 



16 OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 



THIRD MOXTH— Pages 64 to 104. 

1. The Bloodroot. 2. Its acaiilescence. 3. Its flower. 4. Its 
pari etal placen'ta?, and anat'ropous ovule. 5. Its dicotyled'onous 
seed. 6. The isokition of the species ; analysis of the specimen. 
7. The Poppy. 8. Its stem, leaves, and flowers. 9. Its com- 
pound pistil. 10. Its fruit. 11. The order to which it belongs. 
12. Eeview and analysis. 

1. The Violet. 2. Its cu'cullate and cor 'date leaves. 3. Its 
seeds. 4. Cleis'togene flowers. 5. The Garden Violet. 6. Ly'- 
rate stip'ules. 7. The result of cultivation. 8. Eeview and 
analysis of the Vi'ola cucuUa'ta and Viola tri color. 

1. The Chickweed. 2. Its nodes and internodes. 3. Its 
leaves, and their curious action.^ 4. Its centrifugal inflorescence. 
5. Its free, central placenta. 6. Eeview and analysis. 7. The 
Pink. 8. Its caudex. 9. The manner of its fertilization ; pro- 
teran'drous j^lants."" 10. Teratology. 11. Eeview and analysis 
of the Dian'thus caryoj^h'yllus, the Dianthus barba'tus, and the 
L3^ch'nis gith'ago. 12. The Wild Gera'nium. 13. Its palmate 
venation. 14. Its versatile anthers. 15. The torus; its glands. 
16. The regma. 17. The plan of the flower. 18. Eeview and 
analysis of the Geranium macula'tum and the Geranium Eo- 
bertia'num. 



1. See note, page 17, Outline. 

2. Sprengel (1793) set out with the idea that the nectar and certain 
arrangements in flowers are expressly intended for the service of insects ; 
but his investigations led him ultimately to the conclusion that insects 
themselves serve not only to effect the fertilization of plants generally, but 
also in ordinary cases to bring about the crossing of different flowers of the 
same plant or of different plants of the same species. There remained a 
question, which from Sprengel's strictly teleological point of view especially 
required an answer : What was the object of this crossing of flowers or indi- 
vidual plants ? Sprengel was content with simply stating the fact, and 
with saying that nature apparently did not choose that any flower should 
be fertilized by its own pollen. * * * A few years after the appear- 
ance of Sprengel's book, Andrew Knight, relying on the results of 
experiments made for the purpose of comparing self-fertilization and 
crossing, in the genus Pi'sum, laid down the principle that no plant 
fertilizes itself through an unlimited number of generations; in 1837 
Herbert summed up the results of his numerous experiments in fertili- 
zation by the statement that he was inclined to believe that he attained a 
better result when he fertilized the flower from which he wished to obtain 



OUTLINE OF now TO STUDY PLANTS. 17 

seeds with pollen from anoilier iiulividunl of the same variety, or at least 
from another flower, than when he fertilized it with its own pollen ; K. ¥. 
Gartner came to the same conclusion, after experiments in fertilizing Pas'si- 
flo'ra, Lobelia, and species of Fu'chsia, in 1844. In these observations lay 
the first germ of the answer to the question left undecided by Sprengel, ichy 
most flowers are so constructed that fertilization can be fully effected only 
by the crossing of different plants of the same species ; the artificial cross- 
ings of this kind, which Knight, Herbert, and Uartner compared with the 
self-fertilization of single flowers, showed that crossing procures a more 
complete and vigorous impi-egnation than self-fertilization. It was but a 
short step from this fact to the idea that the arrangements in the flower dis- 
covered by Sprengel, together with the aid of insects, serve to secure the 
strongest and most niinierous proge7iy possible. Darwin was the first who 
fixed his eye distinctly on this idea also, in order to employ it in his theory 
of selection. — Sachs. 

1. The Horseshoe Geranium. 2. The arrangement of its 
leaves. 3. Its sepals, pet'als, pistil, and anthers. 4. The true 
place of the Geraiiium. 5. The Yellow Wood Sorrel. 6. Alter- 
nate trifoliate leaves ; their obcordate shape. 7. Its axillary and 
umbellate inflorescence. 8. Its mon'adel'phous stamens, and 
convokite petals. 9. Its sleep.' 10. Its dorsal dehis'cence. 
11. Eeview and analysis. 12. The Jewel Weed. 13. Its flow- 
ers and fruit. 14. Analysis of the Impa'tiens ftilva and the 
Impatiens balsami'na. 15. The Xastur'tion. 16. Its trailing 
stern. 17. Its pel'tate leaves. 18. Its fim'briate, unguic'ulate 
petals. 19. Its fruit. 20. Review and classification of the Tro- 
paeo'lum major. 21. The Shepherd's Purse. 22. Its pinnat'ifid, 
sag'ittate, amplexicaul leaves. 23. Its iinsym metrical flowers. 
24. The fruit ; its ca'rinate valves. 25. Eeview and analysis of 
the Capsella Bursa-pastoris. 2(j. The Toothroot Cress. 27. Its 
root. 28. Its flowers and frtiit. 29. Siricle and silique'. 
30. Eeview and analvsis. 



1. If plants with motile leaves, like Papiliona'ceae and Oxalid'e^, after 
having remained in the light, are suddenly placed in the dark, the leaves 
after some time take up their nocturnal position, closing upwards or down- 
wards according to the species. If light is now let in upon the plant in the 
state of sleep, the leaves again open and assume their diurnal position. 
Placing them inr the shade has the same, but not quite so strong an effect, as 
in complete darkness. These facts show that fluctuations in the intensity 
of the light cause curvatures of the motile parts of plants. If these parts 
are also irritable to concussion, as in Minio'sa and Oxa'lis acetosel'la, dark- 
ness causes a similar position of the leaves to concussion. But the internal 
conditions are very different in the two cases ; for the folding up caused by 
darkness is associated with an increase in the rigidity of the part, and 
therefore with an increase in its turgidity ; while in that caused by irri- 
tation there is a decrease of all these. — Sachs. 



18 ouTLiyi: OF now to study plants. 



FOURTH MOXTII— Paoes 104 to 143. 

1. Tlie Strawberry/ 2. Its complete leaves and virions 
petioles. 3. Its cyme. 4. Its flowers, compared with those of 
the Buttercup and Wood Sorrel. 5. Its achenia.^ 6. Eesult 
of cultivation. 7. The Apple Tree. 8. Its solvent trunk. 9. 
The five divisions of its wood ; Exogens compared with Endo- 
gens. 10. The function of leaves.^ 11. The flowers of the 
Apple Tree. 12. The pome. 13. The radicle and jDlu'mule of 
the new plant. 14. Eeview and analysis of the Py'rus Mains. 

1. Raspberries, blackberries, etc., are not really berries at all, but collec- 
tions of drupes, each drupe corresponding to a therry, and containing a 
single stone. True berries contain seeds in pulp, as Gooseberries, Currants, 
etc. Strawberries are receptacles containing achenia. 

2. Note the use of the pulp, as contrasted with that of the tuber. 

8. As soon as it was understood that all organic substance originates in 
the leaves, a fact which no one could doubt after 1840, no experiment was 
required to prove that the formative matter necessary for the growth of the 
roots, buds, and fruit must be conducted to those parts from the leaves. It 
could no longer be a question whether such a movement of assimilated 
material takes phice ; it remained only to consider w^hat are the conducting 
tissues, and what is the nature of the substances produced in the leaves 
and conducted to the other organs. Both could be determined only by micro- 
chemical methods, and these w^ere not adopted and further developed till 
1856. Nothing certain was known even as late as 1860 about the chemical 
combination formed by assimilation in the leaves. — SacJis. 

The food materials absorbed by the plants are mostly compounds of 
oxygen containing the highest possible proportion of that element; but the 
assimilated substances, which form the greater part of the dried substance, 
contain but little oxygen, some even none at all. It follows from this that 
assimilation must be a process of cleoxidation. The transformation of food 
materials containing but little oxygen must necessarily be accompanied by 
elimination of that element; and since we already know that this takes place 
only in cells containing chlorophyl, and under the influence of the sunlight, 
we have at once the locality, the conditions, and the time of the assimilation 
determined. No organs wdiich are destitute of chlorophyl have the power 
of producing organic substances out of w^ater and carbon dioxide, with the 
assistance of other food materials, a process to which w^e shall henceforward 
exclusively apply the term assimilation. 

The products of assimilation of the cells containing chlorophyl may 
"undergo various kinds of chemical metamorphosis either in these cells 
themselves or after passing into other organs; and the aggregate of these 
processes may be distinguished from assimilation as metastasis. — Saclis. 

It is entirely erroneous to suppose that the carbon dioxide w^hich usually 
abounds in the soil is absorbed by the I'oots and conveyed to the leaves. 
Half of the dry iceight of the organic snhstance of 2)Ja7its must he derived 
from the atmosjjhere. This fact now, after two hundred years of scientific 
progress, follows with absolute certainty from every experiment on nutrition 
with green-leaved plants. — Sachs (1882). 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 19 

1. The Wild Kose. 2. Its thorns. 3. Its odd-pinnute leaves, 
and its cor'ynib. 4. Its anatropous seeds. 5. Metamor'phosis of 
its organs. G. Analysis of the Rosa Carolina and the Amyg'da- 
1ns persica. 7. The Prn'nns America'na. 8. The Prnnns donies- 
tiea. 9. The Enbns villosns. 10. The Rn'bns strigo'snsand the 
Cydo'nia vnlga'ris. 

1. The Pea. 2. Its habit. 3. Its cir'rlions leaves. 4. Papil- 
lona'ceons flowers and di'adel'phons stamens.' 5. The leg'nme. 
G. Eeview and analysis of the Pi'sum sati vnm. 7. The Locnst 
Tree. 8. Its stip'nloid spines. 9. Its flowers. 10. The sensi- 
tiveness of its leaves.^ 11. The Sensitive Plant ; the Desmo'dins 
gy'rans.^ 12. Legn'minons plants in general. 13. Eeview and 
analysis of the Eobinia pseud 'aca'cia. 14. The Evening Prim- 
rose. 15. Its root; the use of its tubers. IG. Its repand-dentate 
leaves. 17. Its inflorescence. 18. Its fruit. 19. The analysis 
of the CEnotli'era bien'nis. 20. The Lady's Eardrops. 21. Ad- 
ventitious fibers. 22. Its colored calyx^ exserted stamens^ and 
capitate stigma. 23. Peculiarity of the pollen-grains. 24. An- 
rJvsis of the Eu'chsia coccin'ia. 



1. Xote the manner in \vliicli tlie pollenization is effected. 

2. The movements occur througli the passage of water from one side of 
the leaf to the other. 

3. That we have here also to do with alternate elongation and contraction 
of the parenchyma of the u])per and nnder sides of the organ is at once evi- 
dent ; and it is more than probable that this is also bronght abont essentially 
by increase and diminution of the amount of water. But by what means 
the turgidity, first of one and then of tlie other side of the organ, alter- 
nately increases and diminislies, while the temperature, intensity of light, 
and (total) amonnt of water remain constant, is as completely nnknown as 
why first one and then the other side of growing and revolving stems and 
tendrils grow for the time most rapidly. — Sachs. 

1. Sweet Cicely. 2. Its pubes'cent internodes. 3. Its leaves 
and um'bels. 4. The fruit. 5. Analysis of the Osmorhi'za 
lon'gisty'lis and the Osmorhi'za brev'isty'lis. 6. The Golden 
Alexanders. 7. Their flowers. 8. Their fruit. 9. Analysis of 
the Ca'rum au'reum. 10. The Mouse-ear Everksting. 11. Its 
sto'lons. 12. Its dioecious flowers. 13. Its in volu'cre. 14. 
The pappus. The easy distinction of the male and female 
flowers. 15. Its ache'nium. 16. Eeview and analysis of the 
Antenna'ria plan'tagin'ifo'lia. 17. The Eobin^s Plantain. 18. 
Its varied radical and cauline leaves. 19. Its lig ulate corolla 
and united anthers. 20. Its sca'brous bristles. 21. Eeview and 
analysis. 



-0 OUTLIXK OF J low TO STUDY PLANTS. 



FIFTH MOXTIl— Pages 143 to 188. 

1. The Dandelion. 2. Its acaules'cence. 3. Its run'cinate 
leaves. 4. Its radical inflorescence — radiant, as contrasted with 
the discoid and radiate. 5. Its perfect florets ; their power of 
closing.' G. The cypsela. 7. The seven characteristics of the 
Compos'itcW 8. The \Alntergreen. 9. Its nr'ceolate corolla. 
10. Its fertilization. 11. Its fruit. 12. The Pyro'las. 13. Ge- 
neric and specific characteristics. 14. Eeview and analysis. 

1. Tlie phenomena are some\Yhat different m the Dandelion and other 
Conipos'itt^ and in Oxa'lis ro'sea ; in the evening a considerable rise of tem- 
perature {e. g., from 9° to 80^) does not cause the flowers to open, although 
a slight but scarcely perceptible curvature outward results. In the morn- 
ing, on the contrary, an increase of temperature accelerates the opening to a 
very remarkable degree. If flowers of the Dandehon are kept in the dark in 
the day-time at a temperature of 10° they scarcely open at all, but in the 
evening more rapidly, and entirely if the temperature is raised. The next 
morning they are again closed at the ordinary temperature, and when this 
is raised they do not open at all, or only very slightly. We see, therefore, 
that light, like warmth, causes an elotigation of the par'enchy'matous tissue 
of the inner side of the flower, this being directly opposed to the phenomena 
displayed by leaves, whose contractile organs exhibit, as Pfeffer has shown 
in the case of Phase'olus, Oxalis, and Trifo'lium, a contractio7i for the 
parenchymatous tissue in the light, and an elongation in the dark. — Sachs. 

1. The Princess Pine. 2. Analysis of the Chimaph'ila nmbel- 
lata and the Chimaphila macnlata. 3. The American Laurel. 
4. Generic characteristics. 5. Analysis of the Kal'niia latifo'lia 
and other species. 6. Their fertilization. 7. The Pitcher 
Plant. ^ 8. Generic characteristics. 9. Analysis of the Sar- 
race'nia purpn'rea. 10. Its carnivorous character, and its cor- 
respondiug apparatus. 



1. It appears to me that in insectivorous plants we meet with a remark- 
able case where nature has contrived complicated mechanisms for the 
attainment of an extremely unimportant eft'ect ; for although it cannot be 
doubted that the small quantities of proteinaceous substance which the 
insectivorous plants absorb from animal bodies are useful for their welfare, 
the contrast between the complicated adaptations to this end, and the evi- 
dently very small amount of biological work they perform is, nevertheless, 
very striking. Moreover, it is certainly not doubtful that just the most 
pronounced insectivorous plants, as Xepenthes and Dionaea, can also thrive 
continuously icithout this occasional supply of organic substance. The 
absorption of nutritive elements by true parasites is necessary to sustain 
life. In the insectivorous plants it is simply a matter of more or less 



OUTLIXE OF now TO STUDY PLANTS. 21 

vigorous flourishing, since, being possessed of clilorophyl and true roots, 
they are able to supply themselves with nutriment. Nevertheless, expen- 
sive and remarkable mechanisms exist in order to add a small quantity of 
proteid substances. — Sachs. 

1. The American Cowslip. 2. Its root. 3. Its umbel. 4. 
Its peculiar ovaiy. 5. Analysis of the Dodecath'eon Meadia. 6. 
The Star flower. 7. Its fruit. 8. Its analysis. 9. The Loose- 
strifes. 10. Generic cluiracteristics. 11. Analysis of the Lysi- 
mach'ia quadrifo'lia and other species. 12. Other genera of the 
Priniula'cCcTe. 13. The Speedwells. 14. Generic characteristics. 

15. Analysis of the Yeron'ica ser'pvllif'olia and other species. 

16. The Toad Flax. 17. Its la'biate corolla. 18. Its didyn'- 
amous stamens. 19. Analysis of the Lina'ria yulga'ris. 

1. The Ground Ivy. 2. Its palmi- veined^ reniform^ crenate 
leaves. 3. Its flowers and fruit. 4. Analysis of the jSTep'eta 
Glech'oma and Xepeta Cata'ria. 5. The Blue Curls ; their in- 
florescence ; the spurs of the stamens ; the achenia. 6. Analysis 
of the Brunella vulga'ris. 7. The importance of the La'biate. 
8. The Morning Glory. ^ 9. Its ephemeral flowers. 10. Its 
adnate anthers. 11. Its fertilization. 12. Its fruit. 13. Its 
germination. 14. Its instinct. 15. Analysis of the Ipomoea 
2)urpu'rea. 



1. The stems of climbing plants, composed of long internodes, have the 
power of twining spirally round upright slender supports, and the long 
petioles of the fern Lygodium possess the same property. This twining is a 
consequeuce of unequcd growth — of a revolving nutrition. It is not caused, 
as Mold held, by an irritation exercised by the support on the growing inter- 
nodes, and is, therefore, essentially distinct from the twining of tendrils 
around supports, which depend on the irritation caused by constant and 
permanent pressure. — Sachs. 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 



SIXTH MONTH— Pages 188 to 229. 

1. The Sugar Maple. 2. Its roots. 3. Its stem ; its three 
kinds of tissue. 4. Its lobed leaves^, and their venation. 5. Its 
corymbs. 6. Its sama'ras. 7. The sap and its uses. 8. Analysis 
of the A'cer sacchari'num^ and the Acer da'sycar'pum. 9. The 
Buckeye. 10. Its peculiar trunk. 11. Its symmetrical, digitate 
leaves. 12. Its flowers and fruit. 13. Analysis of the ^^s'culus 
glab'ra. 14. The new classification of the Sapinda'cege. 15. The 
Milkweed. 16. Its inflorescence. 17. Its fertilization. 18. The 
follicle and its coma. 19. Analysis of the Ascle'pias incarna'ta. 

1. Acer is a Latin word, signifyiDg sharp, and is supposed to have been 
applied to the maple tree because it was used for spears, on account of its 
hardness. Saccharinum, tlie specific name, is from the Latin word sacoha- 
ricm, sugar, due to the sugar-bearing sap. 

Wlien or where the sap of the Maple was first used for the manufacture 
of sugar is not known ; but we have no record that sugar w^as made from 
this tree till after the colonization of northeastern America. It is thei-efore 
probable that its manufacture was begun by the early settlers of the French 
and British colonies of this continent. At the present time about 10,000,01)0 
pounds are exported from Canada ; allowing 5,000,000 pounds for home 
consumption would make the amount produced about 15,000,000 pounds. 
In the United States the prothiction is about 30,000,000 pounds, which 
makes an aggregate production of 45.000,000 pounds. The sap flows from 
the tree through wounds made in the trunk near the ground, into which are 
inserted tubes ; it is caught in pails or tubs and x^l^ced in large pans, in 
which it is evaporated by heat to a syrup. A tree will yield from two to 
four pounds yearly, and will continue to do so for forty years without suf- 
fering injury. The trees are tapped early in spring, when the sap is ascend- 
ing. The boiled sap is used as molasses under the name of maple molasses 
or syrup. By further evaporation, straining, and refining by boiling with 
it lime, milk, and eggs, a white sugar is produced of a very delicate flavor. 
— Willises Practical Flora. 

1. The Spotted Knotweed. 2. Its cil'iate o'chrea?. 3. Its inflo- 
rescence and fruit. 4. Analysis of the Polyg'onum avicnla're and 
other species. 5. Characteristics of the Polygona'cese. 6. The 
Spurge. 7. Its microscopic flowers. 8. Its juice. 9. Its generic 
characteristics. 10. Analysis of the Euphor'bia corolla'ta. 11. 
Characteristics of the Eupdior'bia'ceas. 12. The White Oak.^ 
13. Its male, or sterile, flowers ; catkins. 14. Its fertile, or 
female, flowers. 15. Its germination. 16. Fugacious stipules. 
17. Straight veins. 18. The fruit. 19. Other genera of the 
Cupulif'eras, and their value. 

1, The white oak fui'nishes a hard, durable timber for frames of build- 
ings, axles of carriages, floors, tables, chairs, handles for axes and hammers, 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 23 

wainscoting, paneling, cliurcli furniture, sliipbuilding, and mill gearing. 
The bark is highly charged with tannin, and is a valuable material in the 
manufactnre of leather. The fruit of the Quercus alba, which is the 
sweetest of all the species, is excellent for fattening swine ; the pork thus 
fatted is said to produce the most delicious bacon. The delicate flavor of 
the Virginia hams is said to be due to the feeding of swine upon acorns. — 
Willis s Practical Flora. 

1. The White Pine. 2. Its ac'erons fascicles. 3. Its sterile 
and fertile (male and female) flowers ; the catkins (am'ents). 
4. Its fertilization. 5. The fruit. 6. Analysis of the Pin'iis 
Stro'bns. 7. The Hemlock. 8. Generic characteristics. 9. 
General characteristics of the Conif eras.^ 10. How they differ 
from other Exogens ; the division of the Exogens into An'gio- 
sperms and Gym'nosperms.^ 11. The Junip'erns Virginia'na. 
12. The analysis of the Ab'ies Canaden'sis. 



1. One of the most magnificent results in the province of embryology 
was Hofmeister's demonstration, in 1851, of the fact that the formation 
of seed in the Phanerogams is not essentially different from the proc- 
esses in the germination of the large spores of those Cryptogams which 
possess two kinds of spores. Hitherto it appeared as if a gap existed be- 
tween the reproductive processes of the Cryptogams and Phanerogams; but 
he showed that this gap is filled up by those forms of Cryptogams w^hich 
develop two kinds of spores; or, in other w^ords, certain forms of Phanero- 
gams, particularly the Gymnosperms, approximate in their seed formation 
so closely to certain Heterosporous Cryptogams that w^e might now include 
these plants as justly with the Cryptogams as with the Phanerogams. This 
discoverv has cast an entirelv new light on the interdependence of the whole 
Vegetable Kingdom.— /Sac/^s (1882). 

2. It would, perhaps, be more in accordance with modern views to class 
the Gymnosperms with the Vascular Cryptogams, for these two groups agree 
in all essential characters, except in the forming of seeds and in the mode of 
fertilization, which is by pollen-tubes in the Gymnosperms, by spermato- 
zoids in the Vascular Cryptogams. The method of sexual reproduction, 
especially, is the same in both. But it will be found to conduce to clear- 
ness and simplicity of statement if we consider the Gymnosperms in con- 
nection with the Angiosperms. — Goelel (1882). 

The mode of formation of the female organs is the same in the Mus- 
cineae, the Vascular Cryptogams, and the Gymnosperms ; these organs 
are here termed archegonia, and accordingly these three divisions will 
be included under the term Archegoniatae. It would be thoroughly in 
accordance with our present knowledge to divide the forms of the Vegetable 
Kingdom into Thallophytes, Archegoniat^e, and Angiosperms. — Qoebel, 

1. The Palmetto. 2. Its caudex. 3. Its endogenous struc- 
ture. 4. Its flabel'liform^ pli'cate, parallel leaves. 5. Its flowers 
and fruit. 6. The Oocoanut. 7. Its fruit. 8. The number 
and value of the trees of the order Palma'cese. 9. Contrasts 
presented by the Exogens and Endogens. 



24 OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 



SEVENTH MONTH— Pages 229 to 280. 

1. The Indian Turnip. 2. Its corm. 3. Its pinnate^ netted, 
and marginal veins. 4. Its spa'dixand its spathe. 5. Monoecious 
and dioecious flowers. 6. Different species of the Arisse 'ma. 7. 
Analysis of the Richar'dia Africa'no. 8. Characteristics of the 
Arace^. 9. The Orchis. 10. Its inflorescence. 11. Its adhe- 
rent ovary. 12. Its columns. 13. Its fertilization. 14. Various 
species. 15. Analysis of the Cyp'ripe'dium Acau'le. 16. The 
Bhie Flag. 17. Its en'siform leaves. 18. Its inflores'cent bracts. 
19. Its branches. 20. Analysis of the I'ris ver'sico'lor. 

1. Blue-eyed Grass. 2. Its ancip'ital stalk. 3. Its mu'cronate 
sepals and petals. 4. General characteristics of the I'rida'cese. 
5. The Trillium. 6. Its premorse' stem. 7. Its vertic'illate 
leaves, and their venation. 8. Its perfect flowers. 9. Its fruit. 
10. Analysis of the Mede'ola Virgin'ica. 11. The Bellwort. 12. 
Its leaves. 13. Its ovary. 14. Analysis of the U'vula'ria perfolia'ta. 

1. The Lily of the Valley. 2. Why it bears no fruit. 3. 
Analysis of the Convalla'ria majalis. 4. Other Lilyworts. 5. 
The Star Grass. 6. Its leaves. 7. Its perfect flowers. 8. An- 
alysis of the Hypo'xis erec'ta. 9. The Narcis'sus compared with 
the Hypoxis. 10. Analysis of the Xarcissus Jonquil'la. 11. 
Distinguished characteristics of the Am'aryl'lida'cea^. 12. The 
Cy'i^erus. 13. Its umbels of flattened spikes. 14. Its concealed 
flower. 15. Its fruit. 16. Analysis of the Cy'perus dian'drus. 
17. The Ca'rex. 18. Generic characteristics. 19. Analysis of 
the Carex bulla'ta. 20. General characteristics of the Cypera'cese. 

1. Grass. 2. Its fibers, rootlets, and culm. 3. Its lig'ules. 
4. Its panicle. 5. Its spikelets and glumes. 6. Its fertiliza- 
tion. 7. Analysis of the Po'a praten'sis. 8. Orchard Grass. 9. 
Its scabrous and carinate surface. 10. Its bi'fid ligules. 11. 
Secund clusters. 12. Analysis of the Dac'tylis glumer'ata. 13. 
Sweet Vernal Grass. 14. Its blade and sheath. 15. Its spike- 
let ; dian'drous flowers. 16. The embryo of the Endogens. 
17. General characteristics of the Gramin'eae. 18. Analysis of 
the Ze'a mays^ and of other grains.^ 

1. The flowers of the Indian Corn (two-flowered spikelets) are awnless 
and monoecious. The male flowers occur in terminal panicles of racemes 
(tassels). The female flowers are imbedded in a thick axillary spadix (cob), 
enveloped in many bracts (husks). The pistil (silk) is thread-form, long, and 
green. The culm is solid. 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 25 



EiaHTH MONTH— Pages 1 to 56. Part II. 

1. Protoplasm.^ 2. The formation of the cell wall. 3. 
Cellulose and lig'nin. 4. Chlorophyl. 5. Starchy and its 
formation. 6. Plant crystals.^ 7. Cell sap. 8. Three modes 
of plant growth. 9. Three forms of fission. 

1. Protoplasm was so named by Dr. Hugo von Mohl, by whom it w^as 
discovered in 1846. It is the " sensitive, moving, assimilating, and growing 
substance " of plants. Unaltered protoplasm is identical with the bioplasm 
described by Dr. Lionel Beale. 

2. In looking for crystals, a small part of the leaf should be crushed 
with a knife and immersed in water. They are found in four different and 
easily distinguishable forms, as follows : Raph'ides are small, needle-shaped 
crystals, generally found in bundles within a distinct cell. They occur in 
the Primrose (CEnothera), Virginia Creeper (Ampelop'sis quin'quefo'lia), etc. 
Sphoeraph'ides are globular in shape, and are found generally within a dis- 
tinct cell. They are to be met with in the Oleander (Ne'rium), Geranium, 
Wood-Sorrel (Oxalis), Portulaca, etc. Long, prismatic crystals, with 
angular tips, are found — frequently in pairs — in the Flower-de-Luce (Iris 
versicolor), Gladiolus, etc. Cubical and short prismatic crystals are fre- 
quently found in distinct cells, and also in long row^s, extending along the 
veins of leaves. They may be found in the Maple, Linden, Onion, Eed 
Clover, etc. 

1. Form and size of cells. 2. Typical forms. 3. Scleren'- 
chyma cells. 4. Epidermal cells and their outgrowths. 5. Cork 
cells. 6. Paren'chyma and prosen'chyma. 7. Woody^ bast^ and 
disk-bearing tissues. 8. Ducts^ and their forms. ^ 9. Latex 
vessels. 



1. It is a popular error to suppose that the •* ducts," or vessels, of wood 
serve for the transmission of water, and that the latter is drawn up through 
the wood by capillary attraction. The vessels are not continuous (see illus- 
tration 510, Part II., page 18). 

The woody body by no means represents a system of continuous capillary 
tubes, but is formed of chambers distinctly shut off from one another. 
* ^ "^ After thus establishing that the wood-cells of the Coniferge are 
not in open communication (which is likewise true of wood-cells and vessels 
of ordinary foliage trees), the theory ivhich has existed for tivo hundred 
years, according to which the water ascending in the wood is considered 
to move as in capillary tubes, falls to the ground of its own accord. Even 
if continuous "capillaries" were present in the wood, they are closed in 
the roots below and in the leaves above; and further, the transverse section 
of these ** capillaries " (the wood-cells and vessels, respectively) is far too 
large to explain, according to the known laws of capillary tubes, an ascent 
of water in the wood to a height of more than a few meters. * * * 
The ascending current of water in transpiration (in the wood generally) 
thus moves in the substance of the cell walls. — Sachs. 



26 OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 

1. U'nicenular Plants/ 2. Dicot'yled'onous growth. 3. The 
bast, phel'logen, and cork. 4. The life of the Dicot'yle'don. 5. 
The sap wood and heart wood. 6. The root. 7. The Mon'o- 
cot'yled'onous structure. 8. The fibro- vascular bundles and 
threads. 9. The tissues of Ferns and Mosses. 10. Leaves ; 
their fibrous and cellular tissues. 11. The diverse cells of the 
upper and lower sides. 12. Act of respiration. 13. Metab'o- 
lism. 14. Assimilation. 15. Circulation. 16. Eeview of the 
subject of fertilization ; gam'ogen'esis and conjunction. 17. Ger- 
mination. 18. Dichog'amous and dimor'phous plants. 



1. It is an interesting fact that some forms of animal and vegetable life 
are (accidents apart) immortal. Consisting of but a single cell, they are 
able to perform in the simplest manner all the functions necessary for con- 
tinued existence. In the ascending scale of life there is a cooperation of 
the different cells forming the same body, some cells performing one func- 
tion, and some another, for the common good. This ' ' division of labor " 
produces a higher type of life, but it results in death. Summarizing the 
clear exposition of this subject by Professor Weismann (of Freiberg, Baden), 
the London Quarterly Review says as follows : 

*'The overwhelming majority of animal and vegetable organisms consist, 
as we do ourselves, of different kinds of substances — different tissues — each 
made up of, or having been formed from, a multitude of cells. A natural 
death is now the inevitable fate of all creatures thus complexly formed. 
But there is another set of animals and plants, mostly of minute size, which 
consist of but a single cell each, and none of tJiese, according to Professor 
Weismann, can ever die a natural death. Like higher organizations, how- 
ever, they have to take nourishment, which leads to growth. Such unicel- 
lular, generally spheroidal, organisms absorb nourishment at their surface 
and grow, but the effect of growth leads to a constantly increasing dispro- 
portion between their very rapidly augmenting mass, which needs to be 
nourished, and their much less rapidly expanding nourishment-receiving 
surface. The consequence of this must be either a state of stagnation, 
death, or — what really ensues — a process of spontaneous division, by 
means of which a due balance of functions is for a time restored, followed 
by reaugmentation of bulk and renewed division, and so on continually. 
The formation of multicellular organisms, and the prevalence of death as 
we know it, the professor accounts for as follows : From time to time some 
unicellular organisms failed to subdivide themselves completely, and so, 
by degrees, came to consist of aggregations of imperfectly divided, or at 
least of coherent, cells. Some of these were better able, on account of 
their state of aggregation, to support the struggle of life, and were there- 
fore preserved. Obviously an organism will be more vigorous and active, if 
the cells of which it is composed have adopted the principle of *' division of 
labor,'* and mutually aid each other by respectively dedicating themselves 
to one function exclusively. But the consequence of such increased life 
must ultimately be death, through a failure in such cells to reproduce 
themselves, and, without an adequate supply of all, the processes of life 
could not be continued.'* 



OUTLIXE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 27 

1. Species and variety.' 2. Genus. 3. Opposite systems. 
4. Linnaeus, Jussieii.^ 5. Willises modification of the system of 
Sachs.' 6. The names of the orders ; generic names ; specific 
names. 7. Analysis of the Xatural Orders. 8. What classes 
are omitted from this analysis ? (Eepresentatives of the Musci 
and the Hepatica3 were studied at the beginning of the book.) 
Specimens of Argse/ Fun'gi/ Schizop'hyta/ Di atoma'ceae/ and 
Myx'omyce'tes (the remaining classes) are of great interest to the 
microscopist. These classes constitute a study by themselves. 



1. By the term Species is meant the aggregate of all the individual plants 
which have the same constant characters, these characters being different 
from those of other somewhat similar forms. It is clear that the only 
distinction between varieties — between a known primitive form which has 
become constant, and the wild species comprised within a genns — is that in 
one case the descent is known, and in the other it is not. The various 
cultivated varieties of a primitive form which have become constant are 
linked together by intermediate forms, in which the progressive accumula- 
tion of new varietal characters may be perceived ; but these intermediate 
forms may disappear, and then there is a more or less wide chasm between 
the various varieties themselves, as well as between them and the primitive 
form. Both of these cases occur also in wild plants. * * -^ * 

We are entitled to consider the species of a genus as varieties of a com- 
mon ancestral form, which have developed further and become constant — 
the original form having perhaps actually disappeared or being no longer 
recognizable as such. There is therefore no natural boundary-line between 
variety and species; they differ only in the amount of divergence of the 
characters and in the degree of their constancy. — Sachs. 

2. The first great advance in the natural system is due to Antoine Lau- 
rent de Jussieu (1748-1836). He was no more the discoverer or founder of 
the natural system than his uncle before him. His real merit consists in this, 
that he was the first who assigned characters to the smaller groups, which 
we should now call families, but which he called orders. It is not uninter- 
esting to note here how Bauhin first provided the species with characters, 
and named the genera, but did not characterize them; how Tournefort 
next defined the limits of the genera ; how Linn^us grouped the genera 
together, and simply named these groups, without assigning to them charac- 
teristic marks; and how, finally, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu suppKed 
characters to the families which were now fairly recognized. — Sachs. 

3. Dr. Julius von Sachs, of Wurzburg, Saxony, is among the foremost of 
living botanists. His system, as developed by Goebel, has been inculcated 
as a basis in the work of the year. The reader will find it variously modi- 
fied in the text-books of different authors, and will be able to form an 
independent judgment as to the value of the changes made. An appreci- 
able merit of Goebel's groups is the homogeneity of the terms employed — 
Thallophytes (Thallus-plants), Bryophytes (Moss-plants), Pteridophytes 
(Fern-plants), and Sperm aphytes (Seed-plants). Goebel's classes possess a 
like nierit. Too much dependence, however, must not be placed upon the 
names, since their etymologies are not indicative of any absolute basis of 
classification, for plants are no longer divided primarily with reference to a 



2S OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 

single characteristic. Otherwise, all plants that are not Spermaphytes 
must be classed to<;ether as Sporophytes (Spore-plants), in a single oppos- 
ing group. The name is of little account etymologically ; hence absurdly 
inapplicable names have sometimes been retained by modern botanists. 

4. The slimy green masses, floating on the surfaces of ponds, or string- 
ing in soft green clouds from sticks and stones, ai'e possessed of great 
microscopic beauty. The Vol' vox globa'tor is found as a floating, revolving, 
hollow sphere. Its diameter is from two to three hundredths of an inch. 
This ball is made up of many flask-shaped individuals, each consisting of a 
cell filled with green protoplasm. In reproduction, some of the cells become 
club-shaped spermatozoids, while others become o'ogo'nia (balls of dense 
protoplasm). The spermatozoids escape and push themselves into the 
obsphere, which is transformed into a new '"colony." 

The Hy'drodic'tyon, a fresh- water Alga, is another interesting member of 
this group. It is a green net of elongated cells, joined at the ends, and 
often visible to the naked eye. The net itself sometimes grows to a length 
of ten or twelve inches. 

In reproduction certain cells become subdivided into an immense number 
of very minute cells, wdiich form a minute net w^ithin the parent cell, and 
are freed from the latter by the absorption of its wall. 

5. Of this class the Li'chens are a familiar example. They produce 
as'cospores — spores in sacs (as'ci). These sacs are found in upright, club- 
shaped branches, near the surface of the Lichen. The ascospores are pro- 
duced by the condensation of protoplasm within the asci. This is known 
as the free-cell formation. 

The Fun'gi are chiefly distinguished from the Alg« by the absence of 
chlorophyl in their vegetative organs, in consequence of w^hich they are 
dependent for their food on the organized substance of other plants or of 
animals. — Goehel. 

6. Bacte'ria are present in putrefying and in fermenting matter, and are 
found in the blood and vessels of diseased animals. They accompany and 
probably cause various forms of disease. They are destitute of chloro- 
phyl. They multiply by simple fission. Bacteria may be obtained for 
observation by steeping a small amount of hay in warm water, and then 
filtering. Under ordinary circumstances it will become thronged with 
Bacteria in a few days. 

To those unfamiliar with the part played in nature by these minute 
organisms, the word Bader^ia is frequently associated exclusively with dis- 
ease. This is erroneous, for the number of species of bacteria capable of 
causing disease is relatively small. The great majority of them are con- 
cerned in processes that are not only in no w^ay related to disease, but are 
directly beneficial to all living members of both the Animal and Vegetable 
Kingdoms ; in fact, they are essential to life upon the surface of the earth. 
Through their action the highly complicated tissues of dead animals and 
vegetables are resolved into simple compounds — carbonic acid, ammonia, 
and water — in which forms they serve as nutrition for the more highly 
organized growing plants. It is to the ultimate production of carbonic 
acid and ammonia by bacteria, as end products in the process of decompo- 
sition, that the demands of growing vegetation for these compounds can be 
supplied. Without the carbon and nitrogen compounds resulting from the 
activities of sap'rophyt'ic bacteria (bacteria subsisting upon decaying 
organic matter), the growth of higher vegetation would cease. Deprive the 
animal kingdom of the foodstuffs supplied to it by the vegetable world, and 



OUTLINL OF now TO STUDY PLANTS. 29 

life is no longer possible. The parasites, on the other hand, pl£iy a part 
which is usually in no way beneficial to the higher kingdoms. Their host 
must always be either a living animal or vegetable, in which are present 
conditions favorable to the development of the parasite. With this devel- 
opment substances are appropriated as nutrition that are essential to the 
health and life of the tissues in which the parasite is located. At the same 
time, the materials formed as a result of the nutrition of the parasites are 
direct poisons for the surrounding tissues. It is plain, therefore, that the 
positions occupied by the saprophytic and parasitic bacteria in nature are, 
in their relation to mankind, diametrically opposite, the saprophytes stand- 
ing in the relation of benefactors, while the result of the growth of the para- 
sites is almost always a more or less serious loss to their hosts. — Johnson's 
Cyclopedia. 

7. Des'mids and Di'atoms, representatives of the Zygosporeae, are among 
the most highly prized treasures of microscopic botany. A living Desmid 
is green, while a Diatom is brown. Desmids are best sought for in warm, 
fresh, sun-lighted water, while Diatoms are not select as to their surround- 
ings, and may be readily found in the yellow-brown scum on the mud in 
shallow water. 

The surface of the Desmid is soft, while that of the Diatom is very hard 
and brittle. Desmids float freely, and so do some of the Diatoms. The 
latter have much the greater strength and rapidity of movement, the man- 
ner of their locomotion being unknown. 

Both Desmids and Diatoms are frequently joined side by side in long 
bands. The surfaces of Desmids are not always smooth or free from 
notches ; those of the Diatoms are elaborately and wonderfully ornamented 
with sculpturings and tracery, which are delicate and beautiful beyond 
description. 

For a long time there was much discussion as to the animal or vegetable 
nature of the Diatoms, but that they are plants is now the general belief. 
Their peculiar motion was one great reason for classing them among the 
animals, although some undoubted plants have even a more rapid movement. 
No class of microscopic objects, except, perhaps, the Infusoria, is more 
abundant. No ditch or pond is without them. No pool is too small to 
harbor them ; even a depression made by a cow's hoof in a wet meadow soon 
becomes a home for them. — Stokes. 

The reproduction of the Desmids and Diatoms is both sexual and asexual. 
The first is by fission. In the sexual generation, two adjacent cells send out 
ioining tubes, which unite to form a rounded Zyg'ospore. With Diatoms 
rhe valves separate, and the two masses of protoplasm unite. 



30 



OUTLINE OF HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 






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VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS. 



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COIOION PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Life, flabit, iVumber, Place, /dehiscence, ^ind, Constrac- 
tion, ii^orm, Placentation, .Size, (Qualities, Jppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 


, 


Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.P.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 




LOCALITY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 


-Order, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, //abit, iVumber, Place, Z>ehiscence, ^ind. Construc- 
tion, i^brm, PJacentation, .Size, (Qualities, .4ppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 


i 


Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 




LOCATJTY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.— 

—Order, 
NAME.— Latin, 

—English, 

( 



COMMO> PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Z.fe, JTabit, iViimber, Place, dehiscence, /find, Construc- 
ti)n, i^brm, Placentation, ^ize, Qualities, vlppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 




LOCAT.FTY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.— 

—Order, 
NAME.-Latin, 

— English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, ZTabit, iViimber, Place, 2)ehiscence, ^ind, Constrac- 
tion, Form, Placentation, iSize, Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.R 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 




LOCALITY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, Sabit, iVumber, Place, 2>ehiscence, Kind, Constrac- 
tion, ii^orm, Placentation, Size, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 




LOCALITY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Ord«r, 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, ^abit, dumber, Place, Z>ehiscence, Kind, Construc- 
tion, Form, Placentation, *Size, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. ' 




LOCATJTY.- 
CLASSIFICATION.— 

—Order, 
NAME.— Latin, 

—English, 

) 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ^abit, A^umber, Place, 2)ehi8cence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, .Size, ^alities, ^Ippendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C» 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 




LOCALITY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 

1- ■ — ■ - 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


1 

Xife, Rsib'it, iVomber, Place, i>ehiscence, ^ind. Construc- 
tion, i^brm, Placentation, Size, ^alities, .4ppendage8. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 


1 


LOCATJTY.- 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 
NAME.-Latin, 
—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, iJabit, iVumber, Place, /dehiscence. Kind, Constrac- 
tion, Form, Placentation, Size, Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P,K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 


- 


Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 




\ LOCALITY.— 

CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 
NAMB.-Latiii, 

—English, 

i 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, ^abit, iVmnber, Place, Z)ehiscence, ^ind, Constrac- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, Size, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 




LOCALITY.- 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 
NAME.-Latin, 
—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, fiabit, iViimber, Place, Z>ehiscence, ^ind. Construc- 
tion, i^brm, Placentation, ^ize, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 




LOCATJTY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, ^abit, iV^umber, Place, dehiscence, ^ind, Constrac- 
tion, i<brm, Placentation, .bize, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C, 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q.A. 




LOCATJTY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 
NAME.— Latin, 

—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



■ 

ORGAN. 


1 

Zife, ^abit, iVumber, Place, Z>ehi8cence, ^ind. Construc- 
tion, i<\)rm, Placentation, ,Size, ^alities, .4ppendage8. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 


_i 


LOCALITY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.— 

-Order, 
NAME.— Latin, 

— English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ^abit, dumber, Place Z)ehi8cence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^'orm, Placentation, ;6ize, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn. 




! Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 


i 


LOCATJTY.- 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 
NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ^abit, iViimber, Place, /dehiscence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, Placentation, Size, ^alities, ylppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N.P.F. 




Stamens, N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C.F.Pn, 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.Q A. 




LOCALITY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.— 

— Ordw, 

NAMB.— Latin, 

—English, 



COMMON PHANEROGAMS. 



ORGAN. 


iife, ^abit, iViimber, Place, Z>ehiscence, iTind, Construc- 
tion, i^'orm, Placentation, *!?ize, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Stem, L.H.K.R 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.A. 




Flower, N.C. 




Calyx, F.Q. 




Sepals, L.N.P.F. 




Corolla, F.Q. 




Petals, L.N-P.F. 




Stamens, -N.P.C. 




Anther, D.C.F. 




Style, N.C.F. 




Stigma, N.F. 




Ovary, C F.Pn. 




Fruit, N.D.K.F.Q. 




Seed, N.C.F.QA. 




LOCALITY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 
NAME.— Latin, 

—English, 



ASTERWORTS. 



ORGAN. 


1 
Zife, Sabit, iViimber, />lace, ^ind, Construction, i^orm, 
Size, ^alities of color, etc., ^Ippendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Petiole, P.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K. 




Head, K.F.S. 




Involucre, K.F. 




Scales, N.P.F.Q. 




Receptacle, F.Q. 




Pales, N.P.F.Q. 




Ray flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Disk flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Pappus, L.N.C.F.Q. 




Stigmas, N.P.C.F.Q. 




Achenium, F.Q. 




Embryo, P.F. 




LOCALITY.— 

CLASSrPICATION.- 

— Ord«r, 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 

REMARKS.— 



ASTERWORTS. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ZTabit, iVumber, Place, ^ind, Construction, i^brm. 
Size, ^alities of color, etc., Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Petiole, F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K. 




Head, K.F.S. 




Involucre, K.F. 




Scales, N.P.F.Q. 




Receptacle, F.Q. 




Pales, N.P.F.Q. 




Ray flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Disk flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Pappus, L.N.C.F.Q. 




Stigmas, N.P.C.F.Q. 




Achenium, F.Q. 




Embryo, P.F. 




1 

LOCATJTY.— 

CLASSIFICATION.- 

Otdei, 

NAME.-Latin, 
—English, 

REMARKS.— 



ASTERWORTS. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ^abit, iViimber, Place, ^ind, Construction, .??brm, 
/Size, Qualities of color, etc., Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Petiole, F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K. 




Head, K.F.S. 




Involucre, K.F. 




Scales, N.P.F.Q. 




Receptacle, F.Q. 




Pales, N.P.F.Q. 




Ray flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Disk flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Pappus, L.N.C.F.Q. . 




Stigmas, N.P.C.F.Q. 




Achenium, F.Q. 




Embryo, P.F. 1 


LOCATJTY.— 

CLASSIFICATION.— 

—Order, 

NAME.-Latiii, 
—English, 

REMARKS.— 



ASTERWORTS. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, 5abit, iVumber, Place, ^md, Construction, i^brm, 
Size, ^alities of color, etc., Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Petiole, F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P,K. 




Head, KF.S. 




Involucre, K.F. 




Scales, N.P.F.Q. 




Receptacle, F.Q. 




Pales, N.P.F.Q. 




Ray flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Disk flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Pappus, L N.C.F.Q. 




Stigmas, N.P.C.F.Q. 




Achenium, F.Q. 




Embryo, P.F. 




LOCATJTY.— 

CLASSIFICATION.— 

—Order, 

NAME.— Latin, 
—English, 

REMARKS.— 



SEDGES. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, ^abit, iViimber, Place, Z^ehiscence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i<brm, ^Ize, ^alities, ylppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.Q. 




Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 




Sheaths, C.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.F.A. 




Involucre, N.K.S. 




Spikes, N.K.F.S.Q. 




Flowers, N.K.C. 




Glumes, N.P.F. 




Perianth, N.P.K.S.Q. 




Anthers, N.C.D. 




Stigmas, N.F. 




Grain, K.F.A. 




Seed, N.K.C. 




LOCATJTY.— 

CLASSIFICATION.— 

-Oidw, 

NAME.— Latin, 
—English, 

REMARKS.- 



ASTERWORTS. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, 5abit, iV^umber, Place, ^md, Construction, ii^orm, 
>S'ize, ^alities of color, etc., Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Stem, L.H.K.F. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.S.Q. 




Petiole, F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K. 




Head, K.F.S. 




Involucre, K.F. 




Scales, N.P.F.Q. 




Receptacle, F.Q. 




Pales, N.P.F.Q. 




Ray flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Disk flowers, N.K.F.Q. 




Pappus, L N.C.F.Q. 


' 


Stigmas, N.P.C.F.Q. 




Achenium, F.Q. 




Embryo, P.F. 




locality:.— 

CLASSIFICATION.- 

-Order, 

NAME.-Latm, 
—English, 

REMARKS.— 



SEDGES. 



ORGAN. 


Zife, ZTabit, iVumber, Place, Z^ehiscence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, ASize, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.Q. 




Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 




Sheaths, C.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.F. A. 




Involucre, N.K.S. 




Spikes, N.K.F.S.Q. 




Flowers, N.K.C. 




Glumes, N.P.F. 




Perianth, N.P.K.S.Q. 




Anthers, N.C.D. 




Stigmas, N.F. 




Grain, K.F.A. 




Seed, N.K.C. 




LOCALITY.— 

CLASSIFICATION.— 

-Ord«p, 

NAME.— Latin, 
—English, 

REMARKS.- 



SEDGES. 



ORGAJ^. 


Xife, ^abit, iVumber, Place, Z^ehiscence, ^ind, Construc- 
tion, i^orm, /Size, ^alities, J.ppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.Q. 




Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 




Sheaths, C.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.F. A. 




Involucre, N.K.S. 




Spikes, N.K.F.S.Q. 




Flowers, N.K.C. 




Glumes, N.P.F. 




Perianth, N.P.K.S.Q. 




Anthers, N.C.D. 




Stigmas, N.F. 




Grain, K.F.A. 




Seed, N.K.C. 




LOCALITY.- 

CLASSIFICATION.— 

—Order, 

NAME.--Latin, 
—English, 

REMARKS.— 



GRASSES. 



ORGAN. 


Life, ZTabit, iVumber, Place, ^ind. Construction, Form, 
Size, i>ehiscence, Qualities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 




Sheath, C.S.Q. 




Ligule, F.S.Q. 




Iiiflorescence,P.K.F.A. 




Spikelet, N.K.F.S.Q. 




Flowers, N.K. 




Glumes, N.P.F.S.Q. 




Pales, N.P.K.Q. 




Awns, P.F.S.Q. 




Rudiments, K.F.Q. 




Anthers, N.P.C.D. 




Stigmas, N.C.F. 




Grain, K.F. 


1 


Seed, N.K.C. 




LOCATJTY.— 
CLASSIFICATION.— 

—Order, 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 

REMARKS.— 

—^ 1 



GRASSES. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, Habit, iVumber, Place, Kind, Construction, i^orm, 
/Size, Z>ehi8cence, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 




Sheath, C.S.Q. 




Ligule, F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence, P.K.F. A. 




Spikelet, N.K.F.S.Q. 




Flowers, N.K. 




Glumes, N.P.F.S.Q. 




Pales, N.P.K.Q. 




Awns, P.F.S.Q. 




Rudiments, K.F.Q. 




Anthers, N.P.C.D. 




Stigmas, N.C.F. 




Grain, K.F. 




Seed, N.K.C. 




LOCALITY.-. 

CLASSIFICATION.- 

— Order, 

NAME.— Latin, 

—English, 

REMARKS.— 



GRASSES. 



ORGAN. 


Xife, ^abit, iViimber, Place, Kind, Construction, i^'orm, 
Size, Z>ehiscence, ^alities, Appendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 




Sheath, C.S.Q. 




Ligule, F.S.Q. 




Inflorescence,P.K.F.A 




Spikelet, N.K.F.S.Q. 




Flowers, N.K. 




Glumes, N.P.F.S.Q. 




Pales, N.P.K.Q. 




; Awns, P.F.S.Q. 




Rudiments, K.F.Q. 




Anthers, N.P.C.D. 




Stigmas, N.C.F. 




Grain, K.F. 


1 


Seed, N.K.C. j 


LOCALITY.- 
CLASSIFICATION.- 

NAME.— Latin, 

—English, 

REMARKS.— 


-Order, 



GRASSES. 



ORGAN. 


1 
Zife, ^abit, iVumber, Place, JS'ind, Construction, i^brm, ' 
/Size, Dehiscence, ^alities, J.ppendages. 


Plant, L.H.S.Q. 




Root, L.K. 




Culm, L.H.F.S.Q. 




Leaves, L.P.C.F.Q. 




Sheath, C.S.Q. 




Ligule, F.S.Q. 




Iiiflorescence,P.K.FA. 




Spikelet, N.K.F.S.Q. 




Flowers, N.K. 




Glumes, N.P.F.S.Q. 




Pales, N.P.K.Q. 




Awns, P.F.S.Q. 




Rudiments, K.F.Q. 




! Anthers, N.P.C.D. 




Stigmas, N.C.F. 




Grain, K.F. 




Seed, N.K.C. 




LOCALITY.— 

CLASSIFICATION.- 

—Order, 

NAME.-Latin, 

—English, 

B,E1VTARKS.— 



UBRARY OF CONGRESS 




llii' 

005 336 952 2 













